As computing power continues to improve, the horizontal grid resolution of numerical weather prediction models has reached the kilometer-to-sub-kilometer scale. This grid scale is comparable to the characteristic turbulent scales in the convective boundary layer, allowing the numerical models to resolve the organized convective structures. The assumptions of traditional one-dimensional boundary layer parameterization schemes (suitable for horizontal resolutions of several kilometers or coarser) and large eddy simulation three-dimensional turbulent closure schemes (suitable for horizontal resolutions below several tens of meters) do not hold at this scale, which is referred to as the gray zone. This study discusses the applicability and limitations of traditional parameterization methods and introduces the gray zone of the convective boundary layer from three perspectives: theory, methodological approaches, and impact. It summarizes the characteristics of the simulation methods at the CBL gray zone scale developed over the past two decades and explores the impact of the boundary layer process simulation at this scale on other physical processes (e.g., shallow/deep convection) in numerical models. Further, we anticipate future research directions and approaches.

N₂O is an important greenhouse gas that also damages the ozone layer. N₂O emissions have been observed during microalgae cultivation and in microalgae-based ecosystems, such as eutrophic lakes. However, little has been reported on the important role of the N₂O balance in algae and the potential algal N₂O production pathways. A review of recent relevant studies on N₂O synthesis and fixation by algae shows that the studies mainly focus on the relationship between algae and N₂O emissions, several possible pathways of N₂O production and consumption in algae, the influence of the algal microenvironment on the distribution pattern of N₂O, and the potential impacts on global climate change. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change currently does not consider the possible N₂O emissions during algal blooms or algal aquaculture; hence, it is necessary to intensify experimental studies related to algal N₂O production globally to take important steps towards a comprehensive clarification of the important roles of algae in N₂O emission and fixation and a comprehensive assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from aquatic ecosystems.

Global warming caused by human activities has resulted in significant changes in the climate system, including changes in the regional climate, extreme events, snow, ice, vegetation, air quality, water cycle, and responses and feedbacks among various components of the climate system. The land surface is where water, energy, and geochemical transports to and from the atmosphere occur, hydrological processes occur, and vegetation grows. Hence, the land surface is sensitive to climate change. Climate change affects the hydrological processes not only directly but also indirectly by affecting the vegetation structure and physiology. Land surface models are useful for studying climate change and its impacts on the land surface by modeling the relevant responses and feedbacks. There are three types of land surface models that simulate the mass and energy exchange between the land surface and atmosphere: the global land surface process model, global hydrological model, and global dynamic vegetation model. These three types of models focus on different specific components of the land surface. Since the 1990s, various land surface comparison projects have revealed many problems and shortcomings in land surface models and have furthered their development. However, various issues with these models still need to be addressed. For example, one major problem with the global hydrological model is that it does not incorporate dynamic vegetation growth; hence, it cannot project long-term vegetation change impacts on the hydrological processes—let alone extreme hydrological events such as flooding and drought—and cannot be useful with respect to future water resource management. Incorporating dynamic vegetation growth into hydrological models is a frontline research topic in hydrology. Moreover, many land surface models represent soil textures and heat exchanges among soil liquids, solids, and gases on the Tibetan Plateau insufficiently. This aspect requires improvement by enhancing the observations, understanding the relevant mechanisms, and realizing the mechanisms and processes in the land surface models. The Tibetan Plateau provides fresh water to the surrounding regions and forms and modulates climate and weather both regionally and globally; thus, it is dubbed the Asian Water Tower. Improving the land surface model capability of the plateau will improve the understanding of climate change and its impacts, both regionally and globally.

Ozone is among the most important trace gases in Earth’s atmosphere and plays a crucial role in both climate change and ecology. Tropospheric ozone is an important component of photochemical smog, and its variations are closely related to human activity. Monitoring of tropospheric ozone based on satellite remote sensing can help us better understand and quantitatively explain the characteristics of tropospheric ozone changes in different seasons, times, and regions, and explore the mechanism of ozone generation in the troposphere. With the comprehensive development of satellite remote sensing techniques, ozone remote sensing products (e.g., total ozone, profiles, etc.) have improved significantly in terms of accuracy and spatiotemporal resolution. However, the accuracy of tropospheric ozone products is still not sufficient for the current scientific application of the atmospheric composition of the troposphere due to the weak satellite signals and complexity of the subsurface. This review focuses on satellite remote sensing of tropospheric ozone. It outlines and analyzes the development history and current status of ozone satellite remote sensing payloads and discusses the characteristics and applicability of remote sensing retrieval algorithms based on different technologies (direct and indirect retrieval, multiband joint retrieval, collaborated nadir-limb retrieval, and innovative algorithms based on machine learning techniques). It further discusses the application of satellite remote sensing for the provision of reliable tropospheric ozone observation data at the global and regional scales. Overall, this review envisions the application of satellite remote sensing for providing reliable tropospheric ozone observations at the global and regional scales.

The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy voted that the Anthropocene should be defined by a Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP or ‘golden spike’) as a formal chronostratigraphic unit. Increasing evidence has shown that human activities have drastically intensified since the mid-twentieth century, altering the original rate and direction of Earth’s evolution, triggering a profound impact on Earth’s environment, and leaving their imprint on geological records through physical, chemical, and biological markers. Consequently, the 1950s was assumed to be the ideal onset of the Anthropocene. Currently, 12 candidate sites for the GSSP of the Anthropocene have been proposed for consideration by the AWG. Chinese researchers have made outstanding progress in recent years regarding the establishment of a system of proxies for human activities and the global comparison of the candidate sites for the GSSP of the Anthropocene. These proxies, including anthropogenic radioactive isotopes, microplastics, δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and diatoms, have great potential as markers of human activities. These proxies recorded in the sediments of Sihailongwan Maar Lake, which is far away from cities and less affected by human activities, indicate that this site is sensitive to global change. The concentrations of ^{239, 240}Pu have drastically increased since 1953 CE in the sediment profile collected from Sihailongwan Maar Lake. as Additionally, other proxies such as PAHs, ¹²⁹I, soot ¹⁴C, SCP (spheroidal carbonaceous particles), DNA, δ¹³C, and Pb exhibit synchronous changes near 1953 CE, indicating the onset of Anthropocene. Two sediment stratotype profiles collected from Sihailongwan Maar Lake and Beppu Bay, Japan, were selected by the AWG as auxiliary sections for the GSSP of the Anthropocene. The ultimate goal of Anthropocene science should be to deepen the theory and technological innovation of sustainable development of the Earth-humans system and adaptation based on clarifying the impact of human activities on the Earth system.

The matching of water and land resources often directly affects food production in various regions and is the basis for high-quality economic and social development and modernization of agricultural production. Using nine provinces along the Yellow River as examples, based on the cross-coupling of four elements, such as the natural background of water resources and water resources for total water consumption control, this study constructed a ternary synergistic model of water-cultivated land-grain by cross-coupling. The matching coefficients of water and soil resources from 2010 to 2020 under each scenario were calculated, and the temporal and spatial evolution characteristics of water and soil resources matching along the “province-city” scale of the nine provinces along the Yellow River and the contribution degree of each element were analyzed. The results showed that: \mathrm{①} The matching degree of binary water and soil resources based on the natural background of water resources in the nine provinces was improved as a whole, and the matching pattern of water and soil resources was relatively stable; however, the regional differences are notable and manifested as “high in the west and low in the east.” \mathrm{②} Along the three-way coordinated matching pattern of water-arable land and grain in the nine provinces, from the perspective of the total amount of cultivated land and the amount of irrigated arable land in the natural background of water resources, roughly three distribution patterns were presented: the western and northeastern regions were severely water-deficient areas, the northern and north-central regions typically had varying degrees of water shortage, and the central and eastern regions exhibited a diversified distribution pattern; from the perspective of total water consumption control, a remarkable difference is observed between the total amount of cultivated land and the three-way cooperative matching pattern of irrigated cultivated ground. \mathrm{③} Under the four scenarios, the average contribution rate of water resources were >50%, and the sum of the effective utilization coefficient of irrigation water and the contribution rate of the irrigation quota were >30%, indicating that increasing the effective utilization coefficient and setting a reasonable irrigation quota had a decisive impact on the change in water and soil resource matching. These results improve our understanding of the relationship between water resources and exploitation, cultivated land production capacity, and reclamation, as well as the interdependence and constraints of the grain planting structure.

Quantitative assessments of progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the complex interactions of indicators are critical for monitoring the achievement of SDGs and guiding policymaking and implementation. Based on Big Earth Data and the SDGs global indicator framework, an index system for evaluating progress towards SDGs in frontier, multi-ethnic underdeveloped areas was developed from the perspective of social, economic, and environmental dimensions and included 70 indicators. The study area was the National Innovation Demonstration Zone (Lincang) for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The model incorporated regional characteristics and data acquisitioned from Lincang in 2015-2020 through field research. Consequently, we calculated the social, economic, and environmental sub-indices and integrated index of sustainable development of Lincang City from 2015 to 2020, evaluated the progress trend of SDGs and indicators, and proposed key challenges and solutions for the sustainable development of Lincang City. Research shows that the integrated index and the social, economic, and environmental sub-indices of sustainable development have shown an increasing trend from 2015 to 2020. In terms of the SDGs, progress was achieved with respect to all 16 SDGs. The average annual growth rate of SDG 5 was the highest, whereas that of SDG 13 remained unchanged. In addition, 81% of indicators showed acceptable progress. This study provides a reference for sustainable development planning in other typical demonstration areas and underdeveloped mountainous areas in China and worldwide.

The Diurnal Cycle of Precipitation (DCP) is the result of various dynamic and thermodynamic processes in the climate system and is closely related to the water cycle and land-atmosphere interactions. In North China, the DCP is influenced by factors such as valley wind circulation, boundary layer inertial oscillations, and sea-land breeze circulation, exhibiting two peaks during the early morning and afternoon. In addition, the DCP in North China is influenced by anthropogenic aerosol emissions. This study introduces the fundamental characteristics and factors influencing the DCP in North China and summarizes recent research on the connection between the DCP and land-atmosphere coupling in North China, the modeling of the DCP, and the influence of aerosols on the DCP. The existing scientific knowledge is synthesized, and its shortcomings and challenges are outlined. Overall, investigating the DCP and its influencing factors can help us better understand the mechanisms of precipitation formation and evolution. This provides scientific support for enhancing the accuracy of fine-scale precipitation forecasting.

Climate extremes threaten human health, economic stability, and the safety of both natural and built environments. Compound extreme events are combinations of multiple climate drivers and/or hazards that contribute to societal or environmental risks, and their impacts on human society and natural ecosystems are often more serious and destructive than those of a single extreme event. Understanding the changes in compound extreme events is important for adaptation, mitigation strategies, and disaster risk management. Here, the definitions and connotations of compound extreme events are briefly discussed, including preconditioned, multivariate, temporal, and spatial compounding events. Subsequently, the progress in compound extreme event research is discussed in terms of temporal and spatial evolution characteristics, influencing factors, and future scenario projections. Given the problems in current research, we suggest that future studies should focus on studying compound extreme events regarding variable/index selection and threshold determination, dependence and interaction analysis among drivers and/or hazards, simulation performance evaluation and future projections, and their dynamic processes and disaster-causing mechanisms. Compound extreme events are expected to increase in frequency and intensity in a warming world, and many regions are projected to experience an increase in the probability of compound events with greater global warming. Therefore, we must improve our understanding of the causes and drivers of compound and cascade events.

The Northwest region of China is a major battlefield and an important ecological and environmental security barrier to China’s western development. Flourishing the Belt and Road Initiative, climate change in this region has a direct impact on water resources, ecology, and environmental security. In the context of global climate change, Northwest China has shown an obvious and rapidly developing warming-wetting trend, which has resulted in increasingly prominent environmental and public security risks that are seriously affecting the sustainable development of the regional economy and society. This poses new challenges for climate change responses, water resource management, and disaster prevention and mitigation in this region. Research on the evolution characteristics, causes, and physical mechanisms of warming-wetting as well as its future trends and possible risks were reviewed. It further summarizes the current scientific consensus and existing problems, and finally looks forward to the key directions of future scientific research. A systematic review of the trend, causes, and future projection of climate warming-wetting in Northwest China will have important scientific implications for further research on this issue.

Data-driven methods with deep learning as their core have been gradually applied in Earth science; however, challenges remain regarding the interpretability of models and physical consistency. With the background of remote sensing big data, combining deep learning and data assimilation methods to develop new techniques for the simulation and prediction of terrestrial water cycle processes has become an important research direction in Earth science. Τhe progress in deep learning in recent years combines improving the quality of observation data of terrestrial water cycle components and reducing the uncertainty of physical models. Furthermore, the key scientific issues regarding data assimilation in terrestrial hydrology based on deep learning fusing remote sensing big data are classified according to the observations, physical models, and system integration: \mathrm{①} How can the temporal and spatial representativeness of samples be enhanced when deep learning inverts remote sensing products? \mathrm{②} How can a new physics-guided deep learning method be developed within the framework of data assimilation? \mathrm{③} How can the predictability of the terrestrial water cycle be improved through the “data-model” dual drive? Relevant research and exploration should help promote the in-depth application of the “data-model” hybrid modeling method in the field of hydrology and improve the simulation and prediction capacity of the terrestrial water cycle process.

From 2015 to 2017, the Western Cape province in South Africa suffered a severe drought, resulting in an extreme shortage of water resources in the city, making its capital, Cape Town, the first modern city in human history to face the threat of a “Day Zero” disaster (i.e., the day when the city’s water taps are turned off). However, the interaction mechanisms and processes of various disaster-causing factors remain unclear, and how to scientifically cope with the natural precipitation variation mode by man-made water-supply management needs to be further explored. Therefore, this paper explores the key stages, spatial distribution, and management benefits from the three dimensions of meteorological drought, hydrological drought, and urban water supply management. The results show the following: \mathrm{①} The Western Cape experienced a significant increase in the area and intensity of meteorological drought from 2015 to 2017, with the most severe drought conditions occurring in May 2017. Compared with the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), the drought detected by Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) was more significant. \mathrm{②} The hydrological drought conditions in the Western Cape in May 2017 were the most severe. This is broadly consistent with the pattern of spatial and temporal characteristics of meteorological drought, reflecting the rapid spread of meteorological-hydrological drought. Both the Standardized Runoff Index (SRI) results and the change in reservoir water volume reflect water scarcity in the region, indicating that the drought event had a serious impact on the Western Cape, which relies heavily on rainfall and reservoir water supply. \mathrm{③} The Western Cape government adopted different levels of water restrictions and management policies in response to the evolution of this drought, effectively delaying and avoiding a “Day Zero” disaster; however, addressing the political and economic aspects of water inequality is still debatable and worth improving. This paper shows that urban drought problems involve multiple systems and interactions among the meteorology, hydrology, and water supply, and need to be monitored, understood, and mitigated in terms of the spatial and temporal processes.

Heavy metal migration and enrichment in areas affected by mining and smelting cause severe soil contamination. A thorough understanding of the sources and migration of heavy metals in the soil is the scientific basis for the efficient treatment of soil pollution. In recent years, metal stable isotopes have shown great advantages in identifying sources of soil heavy metal contamination and analyzing heavy metal migration processes, thus acting as powerful tools to trace the environmental behavior of heavy metals. In this paper, we reviewed the analysis technology, tracing principles, and tracing models of metal stable isotopes, determined the isotope fractionations caused by mineral mining and smelting processes (high-temperature smelting, electrochemical processes, and tailing weathering), and discussed the representative applications of metal stable isotopes in the traceability of soil pollution in mining- and smelting-affected areas. The V isotope system is in the initial stages of investigation, and its applications in heavy metal soil source analysis are relatively lacking. Zn, Cd, and Hg isotopes are advantageous for identifying heavy metal contamination sources associated with high-temperature smelting processes. Cu, Tl, and Ni isotopes can directly indicate the ore content of the soil. However, some problems remain, such as the difficulty in analyzing certain systems of metallic stable isotopes, limitations in the application of tracer models, and source uncertainties due to isotope fractionation. Therefore, in the future, it will be necessary to further explore and optimize metal isotope analysis methods, establish more metal stable isotope fingerprints, develop traceability models with stronger applicability and more accurate results, comprehend the characteristics and mechanisms of isotope fractionation in complex interfacial processes and reactions, and strengthen the practical application of metal stable isotopes to trace the history of soil heavy metal pollution.

The inconsistency between the supply and demand of lithium carbonate is becoming increasingly serious. Scientific prediction of the future lithium carbonate demand is of great significance for China’s lithium resource production, import and export arrangements, and national energy policy formulation. Based on a combined model of grey correlation analysis and the ARIMA-GM-BP neural network, data on the driving variables of China’s per capita GDP, industrial structure, urbanization level, grease production, ceramic production, glass production, air conditioning production, lithium-ion battery production, and new energy vehicle production in 2002-2021 were selected to predict China’s lithium carbonate resource demand between 2025 and 2035. The results show that the selected driving variables are highly correlated with China's lithium carbonate resource demand, and the combined model is more accurate than a single model. The predicted average quantity demand for lithium carbonate in 2025, 2030, and 2035 is 0.42 million tons, 0.69 million tons, and 1.03 million tons, respectively. Accordingly, some policy suggestions have been proposed.

Lakes play an essential role in the evolution of regional water cycles and ecosystems. In previous studies on lake evolution, most lake sediment proxy indicators have been used to reconstruct lake and climate change processes. However, there is a lack of quantitative research on the lake water cycle characteristics. Based on the water balance model for watersheds and lakes in distinct periods and the lake energy balance model based on the simulation of the transient climate, water balance calculations and lake evolution simulations for six typical lakes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its surrounding areas were carried out in this study. The results showed that the precipitation and evaporation variabilities in Xiao Qaidam Lake and Lop Nur were relatively small during the Holocene. The precipitation and evaporation variabilities in Selinco and Namco were relatively large during the early-middle Holocene, mainly controlled by temperature and net radiation changes. The precipitation and evaporation variabilities in Qinghai Lake and Zhuyeze were close during the early and mid-late Holocene. This study systematically analyzed and calculated the evolution of lake water cycle elements in different climatic regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during the Holocene, which will help to understand the paleoclimatic mechanism of lake evolution in this region.

The aim of this study is to scientifically implement water diversion projects and effectively provide water security for high-quality development and environmental protection. The research progress of water diversion projects is reviewed in terms of industry standards, specifications, and related studies. It was found that water demand prediction tends to be overly high, the integrity of comprehensive benefit evaluation needs to be improved, the standard of ecological compensation mechanism remains incomplete, and post-evaluation and tracking work is insufficient. To support the spatial equilibrium of water resource allocation and the construction of national water networks, future water diversion projects need to strengthen environmental protection and whole-stage follow-up evaluation, perform full cost pricing, perfect the investment and financing system, and improve information and intelligent management.

The upper Yellow River is the most important water conservation area as well as the runoff and confluence area in the Yellow River Basin, and accounts for more than half of the runoff of the entire basin. Therefore, it is of great significance to the ecological protection, water resource security, and food security of the entire Yellow River Basin. Scientifically understanding the change characteristics of natural environmental factors and deeply exploring the coordination problem of natural environmental factors can promote ecological protection and high-quality development of the Yellow River Basin. Based on the macro understanding of the six important characteristics of natural environmental elements, such as climate, hydrology, and ecology, in the upper Yellow River under the background of global warming and the implementation of national ecological protection projects and water resource management policies, this study describes the natural disharmony among hydrology, soil, climate, and ecology in the upper Yellow River. Moreover, from the perspective of the coordination of natural environmental elements, this study puts forward five scientific ideas on how to eliminate the traditional thinking and misunderstanding of ecology and development problems in the upper Yellow River, as well as six scientific suggestions on how to build an ecological protection and high-quality development model with regional characteristics. This study has important guiding significance for the promotion of ecological protection and high-quality development of the upper Yellow River.

Severe convective weather systems often cause rainstorms, lightning, gales, hail, and other disasters owing to their small spatial scale and rapid and violent development. Accurate forecasting has always been a difficult and bottleneck problem in the international meteorological field, and it is the focus of disaster prevention and mitigation in Shanghai. This research introduces key technologies developed by the Shanghai Meteorological Department in recent years, such as self-adaptive networking observation of strong convection targets, intelligent identification and prediction of strong convection abrupt structural features, machine learning correction of numerical prediction errors, and system integration. Based on this, an intelligent monitoring and early warning system that can simulate the three-dimensional structure and evolution of a strong convective system is established and applied, which has significantly improved the early warning capability fo severe convection in Shanghai. Relevant technical achievements have provided support for major services such as the China International Import Expo (CIIE) and have been promoted for application in urban disaster prevention and mitigation.

The ecologically fragile region in China and Mongolia is among the regions with the largest distribution area, the largest type of fragile ecology, and the most evident ecological vulnerability. The ecological environment condition in the ecologically fragile areas of China and Mongolia restricts the sustainable development of regional ecology and social economy, and is crucial to the ecological security of China and Mongolia. Thus, it is urgently necessary to thoroughly explore the characteristics of ecologically fragile ecosystems in China and Mongolia and their response mechanisms to global changes, which can provide a scientific basis for regional ecological environmental restoration. Based on the carbon and nitrogen cycles of fragile ecosystems affected by global change, this study presents and summarizes the following key research topics: fragile ecosystem carbon and nitrogen cycles and coupling mechanisms, the influence of global change on fragile ecosystems, fragile ecosystem safety threshold identification and risk assessment under the background of global change, and the adaptive management of fragile ecosystems to global change. In view of the national major needs of ecological safety, researches in the following aspects are urgently needed: analyzing the annual, seasonal, and diurnal characteristics of nitrogen turnover pathways, transformation form, and flux in water-soil-gas-biomass systematically to reveal the carbon and nitrogen cycling process, spatio-temporal law, and coupling mechanism of fragile ecosystems and determine the primary mechanism of the carbon and nitrogen sink function in fragile ecosystems. Building a carbon and nitrogen coupling model in fragile ecosystems, quantifying the influence strength of different intensities of climate change on fragile ecosystem safety and the influence of human disturbance on the carbon and nitrogen cycle and its ecological system, assessing the effect of fragile ecological systems on the carbon and nitrogen cycle in the Earth system and its carbon and nitrogen source-sink effect, and proposing management countermeasures and measures of fragile ecosystems to global change.

Mesoscale eddies play an important role in phenomena such as general circulation, momentum budgets, ocean water mass distribution, and water and nutrient transport. Based on the vertical structure of the density and current core, mesoscale eddies are classified into two categories: surface- and subsurface-intensified. The utilization of remote sensing has provided considerable information on surface-intensified eddies. However, little is known about subsurface eddies due to the lack of in-situ observations, although they have been found occasionally in the global ocean. Currently, subsurface eddies are a trending topic within the scientific community. This study reviews the scientific background and research progress on subsurface eddies, with a focus on the northwestern Pacific Ocean. The vertical structure, evolutionary process, and possible formation mechanism of subsurface eddies are summarized based on observational and modelling results. Their influence on marine biogeochemistry, marine sound propagation, and possible important scientific issues are also discussed.

Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Events (OAEs) have recorded significant changes in the climatic and paleoceanographic states of the planet and represent major carbon cycle perturbations. In the past two decades, analytical techniques for stable metal isotopes, such as molybdenum, zinc, uranium, chromium, cadmium, and calcium isotopes, have been developed to study OAEs. By systematically summarizing the geochemical characteristics of molybdenum isotopes (δ⁹⁸Mo), zinc isotopes (δ⁶⁶Zn), and uranium isotopes (δ²³⁸U), and research advances on Cretaceous OAEs, we found that molybdenum isotopes mainly reflect the transformation between sulfide and non-sulfide in the regional marine environment during OAEs. Zinc isotopes can reflect different responses of regional marine environments to different processes, such as primary productivity, continental weathering, and sediment burial/decomposition. Uranium isotopes can be used to estimate the global extent of seafloor euxinia. The coupled global C-P-U cycle model can simulate the response mechanism of the global ocean to different processes, such as the formation of large igneous provinces, continental weathering, and biological activities. However, the cyclic fractionation mechanism of these isotopes in marine systems is still in progress, and most research has only focused on the deposition record of OAE2. In the future, it will be necessary to conduct more systematic research on OAEs.

The atmospheric boundary layer connects the land surface to the atmosphere through the turbulent exchange of heat, momentum, and trace gases. In addition, it plays an important role in the formation and evolution of weather and climate. The characteristics and formation mechanisms of the deep atmospheric boundary layer have been key focus areas in atmospheric boundary layer research. Focusing on extremely arid regions and special geographical locations, the observational facts and influencing factors of the deep atmospheric boundary layer were reviewed and summarized. Furthermore, a physical description of turbulent motion in the development of the deep atmospheric boundary layer was provided. Using the Taklimakan Desert as an example, the effects of the interactions between the deep atmospheric boundary layer and dust stagnation on weather and climate were discussed. In order to provide a roadmap for future research, this study identified and outlined four key scientific problems related to deep atmospheric boundary layer research.

The negative impact of global climate change on resources, ecology, and the environment is becoming increasingly apparent. Hence, reducing the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration has become a global concern. Intertidal wetlands (e.g., mangroves and salt marshes) have strong carbon sink functions that can reduce the CO₂ concentration, thus mitigating global climate change. Mangroves and salt marshes are important coastal blue carbon ecosystems characterized by high soil carbon storage. Porewater exchange and associated carbon exchange driven by tides and rainfall in mangroves and salt marshes are challenging issues when estimating the effects of coastal blue carbon sinks. Large amounts of porewater-derived sediment carbon outwellings remain in the ocean and may represent an important carbon sink; however, they are poorly understood, despite being potentially significant components of the salt marsh carbon budget. This review aims to quantify the porewater exchange rate and related carbon fluxes, analyze their driving mechanisms, and reassess the carbon budgets and carbon sink potentials of mangroves and salt marshes. This study promotes understanding the carbon balance and cycle processes associated with mangrove and salt marsh ecosystems, and provides a scientific basis for the construction, protection, and sustainable development of coastal blue carbon sinks in the context of global climate change.

Clarifying the stability of salt marsh soil organic carbon sinks is of great significance when scientifically evaluating the carbon sink potential of “blue carbon” in coastal zones. The chemical structure and composition of Soil Organic Matter (SOM) are closely related to the stability of soil organic carbon sinks. This study focused on four reclamation areas with different construction times in the eastern part of Chongming Island, China. Solid-state ¹³C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (¹³C NMR) was used to investigate the characteristics of SOM chemical structures in buried salt marsh samples obtained by drilling and topsoil samples acquired from woods around the drilling cores (CM2, CM4, CM5, and CM6). The purpose of this study was to elucidate the variations in the chemical structure of SOM during its turnover. The results showed that \mathrm{①} the variations in soil organic carbon functional groups from the surface to the deep layers exhibited similar trends for the four reclamation areas, despite different construction times. The alkyl carbon and aromatic carbon proportions showed an increasing trend whereas those of alkoxy carbon and carbonyl carbon showed a decreasing trend from the topsoil samples to the buried soil samples. The alkyl carbon/alkoxy carbon, aromaticity, and hydrophobic carbon/hydrophilic carbon of the buried salt marsh soil samples were greater than those of the topsoil samples in the woods around the drilling cores. The stability of the SOM chemical structure increased with burial depth. \mathrm{②} From west to east, alkyl carbon/alkoxy carbon, aromaticity, and hydrophobic carbon/hydrophilic carbon were all less than 1 and showed a gradually increasing trend, but aliphatic carbon/aromatic carbon gradually decreased in the topsoil samples in the woods around the drilling cores. The overall decomposition degree of organic matter in topsoil samples from the woods was low and showed a gradually increasing trend from west to east, which meant that SOM stability gradually improved. This was because the planting time for trees gradually became earlier and the development time for topsoil became longer in the woods from west to east. \mathrm{③} From east to west, the proportions and ratios of organic carbon functional groups in buried salt marsh samples showed that SOM stability increased with reclamation time. In summary, along with soil development, the decomposition degree of salt marsh SOM continued to improve, with an increasing proportion of refractory SOM components and a decreasing proportion of labile SOM components. In addition, SOM stability continued to increase. The changes in the chemical structure and composition of SOM in the reclamation areas, constructed in different years along the Yangtze River estuary, were studied using solid-state ¹³C NMR and the results improve understanding about the temporal trend and chemical mechanism underlying soil carbon sink stability.

The China National Key Research and Development Program of China “The experiment of a multi-platform collaborative field campaign on offshore typhoon (2018YFC1506400)” was established to meet the needs of the country for typhoon prevention and disaster reduction. Additionally, the project aims to solve the lack of direct typhoon observation data, which restricts the development of typhoon science and the improvement of operational forecasting ability in China. Since the establishment of the project in December 2018, field observation-diagnosis and theoretical analysis based on observational data-numerical simulation and data verification have been used to adapt and transform new typhoon detection equipment independently developed by China in recent years. This included high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicles and stratospheric airships and the complete design of the “land-ocean-air-sky” three-dimensional collaborative observation scheme for offshore typhoons. Furthermore, multi-platform collaborative field observation experiments were implemented for 16 offshore target typhoons and the parameterization scheme of the physical process of the typhoon model based on the analysis of multi-source direct observation data was modified and applied to the national-level typhoon operational numerical prediction model. This significantly improved the performance and forecast accuracy of the track and intensity of the typhoon operational numerical prediction model and precipitation forecast by 5% and 3%~5%, respectively. Here, the progress of the program is summarized and associated scientific issues are discussed. The typhoon multi-platform observation system and collaborative observation scheme constructed by the project will lay the foundation for the construction of operational direct typhoon observation in offshore areas of China and is expected to realize the progress from the current “follow-up” to “parallel” and partial “lead.”

Identifying oil layers with high gas-oil ratios in the Weizhou Oilfield is difficult because of the similar neutron excavation effect characteristics in oil layers with different gas-oil ratios. To address this problem, the logging response characteristics, formation mechanism, and influencing factors of the resistivity response in the invasion zone of oil layers with different gas-oil ratios were studied by synthetically using log interpretation, oil layer test analysis, rock electricity experiments, and numerical simulations. The results indicate the following: \mathrm{①} high gas-oil ratio oil layers have neutron excavation logging response characteristics that are close to those of medium gas-oil ratio layers. The neutron excavation effect method, which is a “narrow-spectrum” identification method, can only effectively distinguish gas-oil ratios when they are low and have close formation pressure. \mathrm{②} The oil-gas fluid compressibility is sensitive to the change in the gas-oil ratio; the higher the gas-oil ratio, the greater is the oil-gas fluid compressibility. A nearly linear relationship exists between the gas-oil ratio and the oil-gas fluid compressibility, which could serve as a new “broad-spectrum” identification method to identify the gas-oil ratio by compressibility of the oil-gas fluid. \mathrm{③} By calculating the mutual information matrix between the reconstructed array induction resistivity logging curves, information about the gas-oil ratio implicitly contained in the logging data of array induction resistivity can be highlighted. The value of mutual information in the matrix approximately reflects the information regarding the gas-oil ratio. The gas-oil ratio identification method based on a mutual information matrix can overcome the limitations of the neutron excavation effect method, and the “broad-spectrum” identification of different oil-gas ratios of the oil layer can be realized by using oil-gas fluid compressibility. This method has achieved good results in the application in the Weizhou Oilfield in the Beibu Gulf Basin of the South China Sea and provides a new idea for the quantitative identification of the gas-oil ratio of oil reservoirs in similar oilfields.

Geo-information Tupu, which is the origin of the geomorphic information spectrum, is introduced and the concept and development of the geomorphic information spectrum are then discussed. From the perspective of specific research, the research types and status of the geomorphic information spectrum are summarized, including the geomorphic morphological characteristic spectrum (such as, surface slope spectrum, section spectrum, two-dimensional pattern spectrum, and topographic texture spectrum) and the geomorphic development spectrum. Combined with the development of remote sensing, computers, artificial intelligence, and other technologies, the prospect of the combination of knowledge graph and information spectrum in future geomorphic research is analyzed, and the research progress and key technologies of geomorphic information spectrum such as geomorphic information extraction, geomorphic information classification, and geomorphic mapping are summarized. The future development of geomorphic information spectrum is prospected using three aspects: constructing a complete geomorphic information spectrum system, improving key technologies of geomorphic information spectrum, and strengthening the refinement and quantitative research of global geomorphic patterns and evolution. This study can provide a reference for the digitization, informatization, and intellectualization of digital geomorphology to serve as the major strategy for the management of national resources and the environment and promote the development of geomorphology.

A systematic analysis of runoff changes in the Yellow River is important for ecological protection and the maintenance of high-quality standards within the Yellow River basin. Based on the measured runoff data at 11 hydrological stations and meteorological data from 19 meteorological stations from 1956 to 2020 above the Lanzhou hydrological station， including the Daxia， Tao， Huangshui， and Datong Rivers， linear regression and Mann-Kendall tests were used to analyze the variability of runoff series and the influence of driving factors on runoff change. The results showed that the runoff changes at representative hydrological stations in the study area increased and decreased from 1956 to 2020. The source region and northwest rivers showed slight increases in runoff， whereas the southeast rivers showed a decrease. Overall， the non-source rivers showed a decreasing trend. There was an abrupt runoff change at each station around 1990， with the runoff in the 1990s exhibiting the lowest values. A gradual increase was then observed， with the runoff reaching or exceeding the previous maximum value around the year 2020. Contrary to the trend of annual runoff， the winter runoff at all stations in the study area showed increases， except for the Daxia River， which was mostly influenced by anthropogenic activities. Changes in precipitation and snowmelt water were the main causes of runoff change in the source region， whereas the increase in regional water use and water consumption resulted in a decrease in runoff in non-source areas. Snow cover played a key role in increasing runoff after 2010 and alleviating drought in the 1990s， while permafrost degradation was the main reason for the change in the annual runoff processes slowing down throughout the year， except in winter.

Gully erosion is an important type of soil erosion and is considered the dominant sediment source in small watersheds. Accurately predicting the spatial distribution of gully erosion and spatiotemporal variation of erosion intensity is critical for optimizing soil and water conservation measures in small watersheds, promoting regional food production, and maintaining regional ecological security. Topographic threshold models, susceptibility assessments, morphological features, erosion prediction models, and landscape evolution models are the main techniques for the location prediction of gully initiation, probability evaluation of gully erosion, and estimation of gully erosion intensity. Based on the fundamentals and principles of these methods, the findings of related studies are systematically compared and reviewed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each method are determined. Future research should focus on the optimization of gully measurements and the accumulation of monitoring data, the processes of gully erosion and the comparability of related data, the selection of prediction models and their applicable regions, the development of empirical models and variability of related parameters among various regions, and the gully erosion mechanisms and the development of process-based gully erosion models. Therefore, the proposed research provides technical foundations for mitigating gully erosion and insurance for sustainable development of regional society and economics.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is a region vulnerable to natural disasters. There are many natural meteorological disasters occurring on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau， such as snow disasters， droughts， strong winds， thunder and lightning， hail， and floods. Droughts are the most serious type of meteorological disaster in the region， apart from snow. With climate change and the increase in human activities， the losses caused by natural disasters on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are increasing over time. Focusing on the regional characteristics of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau， we evaluate the situation of meteorological droughts. The main results of meteorological drought research are systematically summarized， and the basic temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of meteorological droughts are revealed. The current technical methods for meteorological drought monitoring and forecasting are clarified， and the laws of meteorological drought disaster risk are elucidated in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results show that the high-incidence areas of droughts are in the north， northeast， southwest， and southeast of the plateau. The high incidence periods were the 1980s and the 2000s. Drought monitoring is mainly conducted based on the drought index and using drought-prediction climate models based on drought influencing factors. The southern part of the northeastern area is a high-risk region for drought disasters impacting agriculture and animal husbandry， while the northeast， southwest， and southeast are higher-risk areas. The alpine grasslands face a higher risk of drought disasters than alpine meadows. Numerical models based on future scenarios revealed that temperature and precipitation may increase in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the 21st century. However， owing to the obvious unevenness in the temporal and spatial distribution of the increased precipitation， the possibility of seasonal and regional meteorological droughts in the future is still remarkably high. Finally， remaining problems in the study of meteorological droughts in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau， in terms of data， technical methods， and model applications， are discussed. Combining existing local problems and international perspective， the key scientific issues and technical fields concerning meteorological droughts in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are highlighted.

Drylands cover about 41% of the Earth's land area， support more than 38% of the world's population， and are home to most of the world's developing and poor populations. Drylands are one of the most sensitive areas to the impacts and responses to global climate change， and it is essential to study the changes in their climate， hydrology and ecological environment. There have been many studies in this area in recent decades， but the conclusions are fragmented and there are many inconsistencies. Based on the analysis of domestic and international literature， this paper summarizes and composes the changes in climate， hydrology， area and type of drylands under climate change and the impacts of these changes on ecosystems. The main results of the combing are as follows. CO₂ emissions from dryland are only about 30% of those from humid areas， but the warming rate is 20%~40% higher than that of humid areas. In the past half century， the dryland area has increased by about 2.61×10⁶ km²， and by the end of this century， the global dryland area will continue to expand by about 5.8×10⁶ km²， which will occupy more than half of the total land area. Under the background of global warming， the water resources system based on precipitation and snow melt recharge in drylands will be more fragile， and hydrological elements such as ice and snow and water resources composition will change， hydrological fluctuations will increase， and water resources uncertainty will intensify. Along with the expansion of dryland area and the increase of aridity， the shortage of water resources， shrinkage of water bodies， degradation of ecosystems and desertification in dryland areas will also intensify， and the future socio-economic development and ecological security of dryland areas will face more severe challenges. Some comprehensive conclusions condensed from these inductive combs are of reference significance for governmental decision making and for proposing credible and clear scientific understanding in the future.

The authors review the major progresses in the targeting observations and field campaigns for Tropical Cyclones （TCs） using their proposed nonlinear optimal perturbation methods. They used condition nonlinear optimal perturbation， which aims at reducing the initial errors for numerical models， to identify the sensitive regions for TC track and intensity forecasts. This guides both FY-4 satellite and dropsonde in the field campaigns to effectively collect valuable observation data. Furthermore， they investigated the sensitivity of TC intensity forecast to model errors using nonlinear forcing singular vector， which indicates both the sensitive regions and variables in troposphere and the sensitive regions of sea surface temperature. Simultaneously， they also identified the sensitive regions and variables in the boundary layer during a rapid intensification process of a TC using ensemble perturbation method. In final the unresolved problems， possible solutions， and future recommendations in the targeting observations for TCs are discussed.

Transportation system is the spatial carrier of human social and economic activities， and it facilitates the flow of productive and living elements and human mobility， which make transportation-region development interactions become an important topic in the field of human and economic geography. With the rapid development of Chinese high speed transportation system and the concept of people-centered transport planning， transport geography research in China has been working for the disciplinary development， interdisciplinary integration， employing data mining and multi-source technologies， focusing on disciplinary obstacles， study bottlenecks and national needs. This paper surveys theoretical and methodological advance on transportation-region development interactions， and it explains the innovative development for multi-scale， multi-layer， and multi-mode transport geography research. Major contribution can be summarized below： \mathrm{①} theoretical and methodological innovation in transport geography towards high-speed， networking， and complex changes， \mathrm{②} the interacting mechanism between transportation and the globe-region-local systems， \mathrm{③} urban science and organizational mechanism with the investigation of transportation big data. Based on the disciplinary theories and methods， research outputs have been useful for practical applications such as transportation infrastructure allocation and regional coordinated development， "Belt and Road Initiative" and cross-border connectivity， COVID-19 interventions and controls. These applications contribute to the development of transport geography， particularly under the strategy of "Building China's strength in Transportation".

Climate modeling analyses for the Last Glacial Maximum （LGM） and mid-Holocene undertaken by the authors in recent years were systematically reviewed， including changes in climate over China， East Asian and global monsoons， as well as the associated major atmospheric circulation systems. Based on multi-model simulation data， the recent results showed that during the LGM， the simulated cooling and annual net precipitation change over China were qualitatively consistent with geological records， with a weaker magnitude for the simulation. The LGM permafrost area expanded and the active layer thickness was thinner in China， while the glacier equilibrium line altitude in western China were lower than the preindustrial levels. Although the LGM changes in the East Asian monsoon intensity differed among the models， the monsoon area and monsoon precipitation over China were consistently decreased； the land monsoon region moved southward in the Northern Hemisphere， and both decreases in global monsoon area and monsoon precipitation intensity led to deficient global monsoon precipitation. The magnitude of global mean terrestrial moisture change was overall small due to both decreases in global mean precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. The LGM northern westerlies shifted poleward in the upper level but equatorward in the lower level， the tropical belt width changes were dependent on the selection of metrics， and the El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation （ENSO） impacts and the tropical Pacific Walker circulation were revealed to weaken and shift eastward. During the mid-Holocene， the simulated annual and winter cooling over China was still opposite to the warming reconstructed by most geological records. The East Asian winter monsoon was consistently strengthened， while there were spatially inhomogeneous changes in the East Asian summer monsoon precipitation； the monsoon area and monsoon precipitation increased both over China and over the globe. The mid-Holocene permafrost area reduced in northeastern China but expanded to low-altitude regions in the Tibetan Plateau； in the Northern Hemisphere， the permafrost extent contracted， seasonally frozen ground expanded， frozen ground retreated northward， and the active layer thickness became larger. There was overall little change in the total area of global drylands. The summer East Asian westerly jet significantly weakened and shifted northward， the ENSO weakened， and the associated tropical Pacific Walker circulation strengthened and shifted westward during the mid-Holocene. The above changes were mainly responses to the LGM large presence of ice sheets and lower atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations or the mid-Holocene orbital forcing， with the ocean feedback playing a certain modulation role and the vegetation feedback effect showing a level of uncertainty. The causes of model-data mismatch deserve to be further investigated.

The Scientific Observing Network of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has realized the long-term mooring measurements of the Deep Western Boundary Current （DWBC） in the western Pacific Ocean. Based on observational data and numerical model outputs， we have illustrated the pathway， volume transport， and forcing mechanism for the seasonal intrusion of the DWBC at the Yap-Mariana Junction， revealed the characteristics and energy sources of deep intraseasonal oscillation induced by the topographic Rossby wave and found "a high-speed way" connecting the DWBC to the upper ocean processes and climate change. These new findings have changed the traditional view that the deep ocean circulation is in a state of calm， disorder， and a very slow variation. This paper summarizes the recent advances in the DWBC in the western Pacific Ocean， and discusses the prospect of observation and scientific study of the Pacific DWBC.

Global warming has intensified the threat of drought in Central Asia， making problems such as water shortage， ecological degradation and transboundary river disputes more prominent. The research shows that in the past half century， the overall change trend of meteorological drought degree in Central Asia has not been significant. However， with the regional high temperature fluctuation， it has shown an obvious drying trend since 2000. About 65% of the regions show the intensification of drought degree， and the drought intensity will continue to increase under the SSPs scenarios in the future. We designed numerical experiments and found that drying trend responding to the dramatic increase in air temperature and slight decline in precipitation. From different drought sub categories， the area of extreme arid areas and arid areas in Central Asia shows an increasing trend at the rate of 0.02 × 10⁴ km²/a and 0.22 × 10⁴ km²/a， mainly concentrated in the northern margin of Tarim Basin in Xinjiang and in southern Kazakhstan. At the same time， about 84% and 81% of the soil moisture in the shallow layers （0~10 cm，10~40 cm） have exhibited decreasing trend， respectively. The increase of vegetation transpiration and soil water dissipation in plain desert areas has led to the decline and death of some shallow root desert plants with weak drought resistance， which depend on groundwater and soil water. The agro-ecological drought is intensified， and the hydrological drought is more complex. The conclusions will provide a scientific basis for water resources planning and management and ecological protection in Central Asia.

Marine Heatwaves （MHWs） have very important impacts on marine environment， ecosystem and economic life. Global warming has exacerbated MHWs in recent years. The research on MHWs has developed rapidly and gradually become an important research frontier. This paper reviews the scientific background and research progress on MHWs both at home and abroad. Various kinds of MHWs' definitions， spatiotemporal features， formation mechanisms， impacts on marine ecosystem， and possible changes in the context of future global warming are summarized. The remaining important scientific issues in the field of MHWs research are discussed and with this base， the possible development trend in future is prospected.

There exists a sort of dynamic geographic phenomena with a property from production through development to dissipation in a real world， and the integrated Earth observation technology and the crowd sources technology promote the capabilities of obtaining these dynamics. The traditional spatiotemporal methods take a point， a line， a polygon or a voxel as an analyzing unit， and a scale of data acquisition as the analyzing scale， which splits a continuity of temporal evolutions， and limits their dynamic analysis. This paper abstracts the property from production through development to dissipation into a geographical process， takes it as a scale of analysis， and proposes a novel approach of geographical dynamic analysis. Firstly， a process semantics with a hierarchical abstraction of "geographical process-evolution sequence- instantaneous state" is proposed. And a graph-based model with a "node-edge" is used to represent and store geographical objects and their evolution behaviors. Secondly， a geographical process is used as a unit to design a process-oriented object extracting method with an "extracting of instantaneous state-tracking of evolution sequence- reconstructing of geographical process"， and on the basis of in-degree and out-degree of a graph， four evolution behaviors are identified. Then， series of new concepts about spatiotemporal mining are redefined on the basis of a scale of process， and some process-oriented mining methods are designed， e.g. spatiotemporal clustering， association rule mining. Finally， a real dataset of monthly Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly （SSTA） during the period of January. 1950 to December. 2019 is to explore their evolving structures in Pacific Ocean， and the association patterns between the evolving structures of SSTA and the types of ENSO are addressed. Results demonstrate the effectiveness and the advantages of process-oriented dynamic analyzing method.

A large-scale hydrological observational network has been maintained in the tropical Indian Ocean since 2010 by the South China Sea Institute of Oceanography， Chinese Academy of Sciences （CAS）. This paper reviews the research progress on the circulation dynamics over recent years based on the CAS observations. The results reveal an "ocean wave bridge in the eastern boundary". On the equator， the currents in the upper layer， the thermocline， and the middle layer are significantly modulated by the equatorial Kelvin and Rossby waves directly forced by equatorial winds and reflected from the eastern boundary， which effectively transport energy horizontally and vertically. Off the equator， the currents are still regulated by the equatorial dynamics， as equatorial-origin wave signals transmit energy there relying on the eastern boundary in the form of coastal Kelvin waves and reflected Rossby waves. Under the support of the dynamic fulcrum of the eastern boundary， the ocean wave bridge is thus an energy belt， which links generation and variation of the circulation in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean. In addition to the internal factor， contributions of external factors such as large-scale climate mode on the circulation are also discussed. The dynamic framework of ocean wave bridge will provide scientific enlightenment for further research on the characteristics， changes， and effects of the tropical Indian Ocean circulation.

Water stable isotopes （δ） are inherent in the water cycle， changing during water phase changes， and hence widely used to study moisture trajectory and water cycle. Their application to the study of atmospheric circulations over the Tibetan Plateau （TP） has led to a comprehensive understanding in the past decades. This review focuses on field sampling across the extensive TP， and summarizes the spatial and temporal variation patterns in water stable isotopes in precipitation， surface water and ice cores. Complex circulation patterns are found to affect the altitude effect in water stable isotopes， so that monsoon yields a smaller altitudinal lapse rate than westerly， which in extreme cases can result in increasing isotopic composition with increasing altitudes； though the precipitation isotopes have a prevailing dominance over surface water isotopic features. The sensitive response of precipitation stable isotopes to convection is also applied to the judgement of monsoon onset based on abrupt， continuous and significant decrease in δ. Accordingly， the submonsoon system is found to onset earlier over the Bay of Bengal than the South China Sea and varies diversely under global warming. A long-term perspective into atmospheric circulation over the Tibetan Plateau from ice core δ reveals significant impacts of El Nin?o-Southern Oscillation （ENSO） on the TP， with a dampening effect on the temperature significance of ice core isotopes in the southern TP under the monsoon dominance， while a lagged correlation between ENSO and ice core isotopes in the northwestern TP； all pointing to possible teleconnections between TP climates and sea surface temperature. In future studies， the Earth system models will be relied upon to help reveal physical mechanisms behind complex water stable isotope variations， and comprehend unique isotope variation patterns under extreme climates. Based on modern precipitation δ variation features and abrupt changes and triggering mechanisms， variation history of moisture sources is to be reconstructed from paleoproxies. Besides， isotopic parameters including deuterium excesses have high meteorological synoptic capacity， and would be applied to the analysis of changes in sea surface temperature or evaporation， and hence to facilitate the understanding of sea-air interactions， and the interactions of circulation patterns and water cycles on the Tibetan Plateau with global climate changes.