The mangrove ecosystem is regarded as a crucial coastal “blue carbon” ecosystem and the characteristics of carbon sources and sinks and their budget are currently a hot topic of research in China on “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality.” Through the collection and compilation of relevant domestic and international research and data, this study summarizes the characteristics of carbon sources and sinks, methodologies for carbon accounting, and budgets of carbon sources and sinks in Chinese mangrove ecosystems. Carbon sources and sinks in mangrove ecosystems primarily include vegetation and soil carbon stocks and greenhouse gases. In Chinese mangrove ecosystems, the annual carbon sequestration of vegetation ranges from 4.0×10⁴ to 6.1×10⁴ t C/a, whereas the annual carbon sequestration of soil ranges from 4.4×10⁴ to 9.7×10⁴ t C/a. The total CH₄ emissions are approximately 1.0×10³ t C/a and the ecosystem-scale carbon sequestration ranges from 0.7×10⁵ to 1.5×10⁵ t C/a. Over a 100-year period, CH₄ emissions can offset approximately 5% of the net ecosystem productivity in terms of carbon sequestration effects. The net lateral carbon output is 0.5×10⁵ to 1.5×10⁵ t C/a. Furthermore, the contribution of mangrove carbon sinks to total ecosystem carbon sequestration in China and their challenges have been discussed thoroughly. Future efforts should focus on strengthening mangrove conservation and restoration, actively monitoring carbon sequestration, and ensuring a balance between the carbon sequestration function and other vital ecological services.

The recently published report “Earth System Science in China: The Development Strategy for 2035” identified three major areas for potential research breakthroughs: \mathrm{①} Revisiting the marine carbon pump, \mathrm{②} Hydrological cycle and orbital forcing, and \mathrm{③} Ocean-Continent connection between the Pacific and Asia. The strategy research group was jointly established in 2019 by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Over the course of three years, the group organized 14 thematic workshops, involving over 500 experts from various research fields. This study provides a brief overview of these three major research areas.

In recent years, flash droughts with rapid onset have occurred frequently worldwide, severely impacting society, economy, and the ecological environment. Major progress in the formation and evolution mechanisms of flash droughts has been reviewed. Concludingly, intense precipitation deficits cause flash droughts, whereas increased evapotranspiration accelerates drought onset, further triggering flash droughts. These abnormal meteorological factors are closely associated with sea surface temperature anomalies (such as the El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation, North Atlantic Tripole, and Indian Ocean Dipole) and their related atmospheric circulation anomalies. In addition, the roles of local and non-local land surface anomalies in the onset and maintenance of flash droughts are important. Moreover, the synergistic effects of climate and land-use change on land-atmosphere-ocean coupling processes make the development of flash droughts more complex and add considerable uncertainty to evolutionary trends. Therefore, future research needs to achieve breakthroughs in several areas, including the large-scale atmospheric circulation background of flash drought onset and maintenance, modulating roles of key land and ocean signals, flash drought-vegetation interactions, and response mechanisms of the variation of flash droughts to climate warming and land cover changes.

The study of Source-to-Sink systems is an important field of research focused on understanding the entire process of material transport from source areas like mountain ranges or other landforms to sink areas like river basins, lakes, and oceans. This process entails weathering of the parent rock, erosion of materials, transportation via various agents (such as wind, water, or ice), and eventual deposition at sink locations. Analyzing this system reveals dynamic surface changes, material cycling mechanisms, and how these processes adapt to environmental shifts over time. Understanding these complex processes is crucial for a variety of scientific fields, including geomorphology, environmental science, and natural resource management; however, the traditional methods such as field observations and laboratory analyses, Have their own set of challenges. Data availability, low spatiotemporal resolution, and ambiguity in interpretation make it difficult to capture the rapid and dynamic changes occurring in natural systems. Furthermore, these methods are not ideally suited for analyzing long-term evolutionary processes or large-scale systems. Consequently, numerical modeling has emerged as an essential tool studying source-to-sink systems, addressing these traditional limitations by simulating complex processes over varying spatial and temporal scales. They offer more quantitative insights into the dynamics of erosion, transport, and deposition under different environmental conditions.This paper reviews five key numerical tools commonly used in source-to-sink research: Dionisos, SEDSIM, Landlab, goSPL, and Delft3D. Each tool has specific advantages that render it suitable for various research purposes. Dionisos, for instance, excels at modeling large-scale, long-term basin-filling processes though it is less effective for simulating small-scale, dynamic changes. SEDSIM, based on hydrodynamic equations, produces highly accurate results for clastic sedimentary processes, but tends to be slower and more focused on specific types of sediment. LandLab is highly customizable and capable of multi-process simulations; although, it requires advanced programming skills. goSPL handles global-scale high-resolution simulations effectively, despite struggling with localized phenomena and requiring significant computational resources. Delft3D is ideal for small-scale, fine-detail simulations, particularly in coastal, riverine, and lacustrine environments, although it faces challenges in large-scale applications. With ongoing advances in computational power and algorithms, future advancements in source-to-sink modeling are expected. The integration of big data and AI will likely enhance the accuracy of predictions, facilitate multidisciplinary integration, and drive the intelligent evolution of the field.

With growing concerns about ecosystem functioning and the services provided by soil, the study of soil aggregates has increasingly become a central discipline of modern soil science, with ongoing updates to consensus and methodology. In this review, we provide a holistic overview of the understanding and characterization of the soil aggregate system that has emerged over the last two decades. The evolution of concepts related to soil aggregation, size fractionation, and structural characterization is presented, along with discussions on the separation and examination of the biophysical structure. Additionally, the final core scientific consensus on the soil hierarchy system is synthesized. The key points of understanding soil aggregates are as follows: \mathrm{①} Soil aggregates are considered the fundamental micro-architectural and functional units, composed of mineral particles, organic matter, and microbiomes through their interactions and co-occurrence, thus representing the basic functional particles of soil in nature; \mathrm{②} The micro-spatial distribution of soil aggregates at different hierarchical levels results in the heterogeneity and functional diversity of soil; \mathrm{③} The ultimate nature of soil aggregates can be envisioned as an embedded bio-pore system, created through the dual structure of aggregates and the associated pore system governed by the hierarchical aggregate system; \mathrm{④} A soil aggregate system is generally represented by three major hierarchical size fractions: macroaggregates, microaggregates, and the silt/clay fraction, with macroaggregates formed by binding microaggregates and/or silt-clay particles with coarse organic matter, resembling a pomegranate structure; \mathrm{⑤} Wet sieving of field-moist samples is recommended for the preparation of soil aggregate separates, although dry or moist sieving is often used for samples from drylands; \mathrm{⑥} μCT tomography technology is a powerful tool for quantifying and visualizing the pore system of soil aggregates, with the potential to link soil life processes to ecosystem services. Global cooperation is encouraged to develop a unified protocol for fractionating, quantifying, and visualizing the soil hierarchy system of aggregates across the world’s soils. With these developments, the complex soil system, particularly its biodiversity, can be explored at the aggregate scale. Based on the updated understanding and characterization of the soil aggregate system, nature-based solutions for global soil management policies and technical options will be provided, contributing to Earth’s sustainability.

Inter-ocean exchange between the tropical Pacific and the Indian Ocean, which relies on throughflow from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, serves not only as a crucial conduit for the exchange of mass, momentum, and energy between the Indo-Pacific basins, but also as an oceanic channel for the propagation of climate anomalies between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In addition, it plays a key role in the closure of the Great Ocean conveyor belt by facilitating the compensation of surface waters in the deep Atlantic. Therefore, interocean exchange is a pivotal component of global ocean and climate systems. It has been recognized as one of the most important academic hotspots for ocean circulation in interocean change regions and their related climates. Since the 1990s, international cooperative actions have been conducted, focusing on the observation of inter-ocean exchange. Starting in 2007, Chinese researchers have conducted observations in the main strait and channels of interocean exchange regions by collaborating with Indonesian researchers. Currently, they have established the largest on-site array for the synchronous observation of interocean exchange. The array covers the key inflow, throughflow, and outflow regions. This paper reviews the major progress and open issues of inter-ocean exchange from four aspects: \mathrm{①} multiscale variations of inter-ocean exchange, \mathrm{②} cross-scale and \mathrm{③} cross-basin interactions, and \mathrm{④} modulation of the primary climate modes of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The prospects of the key research goals for the next five to ten years are also outlined.

Plant sedimentary ancient DNA is an advanced method to analyze the information on paleovegetation, which can provide a broader perspective and additional details regarding paleovegetation and paleoenvironment from the perspective of molecular biology. We analyzed the main factors influencing the preservation of ancient plant sedimentary DNA. In addition, we outline the process of plant sedimentary ancient DNA analysis. We synthesized the progress of research on plant sedimentary ancient DNA in the dynamic evolutionary processes of plant communities, the reconstruction of climate and environmental changes, and the reconstruction of ecological evolutionary responses to human activities. By providing rapid, high-resolution information on ancient plant species, the ancient DNA analysis of plant sediments can be used to reconstruct the evolution of plant communities, quantitatively and semi-quantitatively reconstruct paleoclimates, and explore the impacts of human agricultural and pastoral activities on ecosystems. In the future, we should construct more perfect reference data for the DNA classification of plant species, strengthen the burial study of plant sedimentary ancient DNA molecules, promote the application of plant sedimentary ancient DNA in Quaternary paleoenvironmental research, and combine it with multiple indices to obtain more detailed paleoecological information. Therefore, plant sedimentary ancient DNA plays an important role in understanding the relationships between ancient vegetation, climate change, and human activity.

With the rapid accumulation of marine big data and the robust development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology, intelligent marine forecasting has shown greater precision and efficiency in this new era. Marine data can be categorized into point- and field-observation data based on the observation methods, providing foundational support for marine forecasting. Marine forecasting methods can be divided into three main types based on the characteristics of the dynamic marine processes and phenomena: point-to-point, field-to-point, and field-to-field forecasting. These forecasting approaches not only cover a variety of marine phenomena but also address different forecasting requirements. Through a case analysis, this study specifically introduces intelligent forecasting models and results for point-to-point internal solitary wave forecasting, field-to-point El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) forecasting, and field-to-field phenomena such as mesoscale eddies and sea ice. Finally, it explores the development directions for intelligent marine forecasting in the context of big data, suggesting that enhancing the integration of data-driven methods with physical mechanisms can improve forecast accuracy and real-time responsiveness, thereby providing technical support for marine environmental monitoring, disaster warning, and the sustainable use of marine resources.

Ice-shelf calving has a direct impact on Antarctic mass loss and dynamic processes, and it is particularly important to study its spatial characteristics, environmental conditions, and controlling factors. Based on the machine learning algorithms and ice sheet dynamic models, utilizing remote sensing data on Antarctic ice shelf calving from 2005 to 2020, ice shelf surface fracture data, ice shelf buttressing value, spatial distribution data of Antarctic ice shelf damage, and basal melting data, combined with machine learning binary classification, the importance of 18 characteristic elements influencing ice shelf dynamic processes was analyzed, and the accuracy of seven different machine learning algorithms was calculated. The results indicate that the random forest algorithm achieves the highest accuracy in the binary classification of ice shelf calving and that surface meltwater has a significant impact on ice shelf collapse, indicating the feasibility of using both the intrinsic dynamics of the ice shelf and external environmental factors for prediction. Subsequent efforts should further couple dynamic models with machine learning algorithms and establish corresponding numerical modeling systems to depict ice-shelf calving events with higher spatiotemporal resolutions in terms of intensity and extent.

Dust aerosols have a profound impact on climate change, the ecological environment, and public health, highlighting the importance of systematic research. Numerical models serve as effective tools for the investigation of dust aerosols because they enable the simulation of processes, including dust emission, transport, dispersion, and deposition. However, substantial discrepancies remain in the simulation outputs of numerical models, which are largely attributed to incomplete dust emission parameterization schemes and uncertainties in the model input fields. We focus on methodologies for dust aerosol observation, advancements in numerical model development, progress in dust emission parameterization, and recent strides in data assimilation research. Based on the current research status, we analyzed issues in the research of dust aerosols using numerical models and outlined prospective avenues for future research. Through a comprehensive review of the advancements in numerical simulation studies of dust aerosols, we hope to offer valuable insights and serve as a reference for further research in related fields.

The Division Ⅴ (Atmospheric Sciences Discipline) of the Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), has successfully completed the application, mail review, panel review, and funding results summaryof 2023 as scheduled. In terms of project applications, the Atmospheric Sciences Discipline received 2 312 applications for General Program, Young Scientists Fund, and Fund for Less Developed Regions in 2024, with an increase of 19.9% compared to 2023. From the perspective of review results, the comprehensive scores of the mail reviews for these three types of projects in 2024 were slightly lower than those in 2023.When determining the priorityprojects for panel review, the discipline layout wasconsidered.Two sections (i.e., the second-level application codes D0509 to D0515) were appropriately tilted toward the Supporting Technology and Development Fields. Under the equal conditions, preference was given to female applicants. After the panel review, the Atmospheric Science Discipline funded a total of 423 projects in the above three types, and successfully completed the funding plan determined by the Earth Science Department.With the aspect of concluding achievements, a total of 337 projects were completed in 2023, with the indicators such asthenumberof publications slightly increased compared to 2022.

As the largest desert in the world, the Sahara Desert emits dust aerosols, accounting for 50%~60% of the global total dust, exerting significant impacts on regional and even global climate, environment, and ecosystems. Previous domestic and international studies reported two primary transport pathways for Saharan dust: westward across the North Atlantic, reaching North America, or northward to the European continent. In recent years, studies have shown that Saharan dust can be transported across the Middle East and Central Asia, undergoing long-distance (nearly 10 000 km) to East Asia, which is the third transport pathway for Saharan dust. Therefore, this study primarily summarizes the research progress on the long-range transport of Saharan dust to East Asia and its impacts, including the physical and chemical properties of Saharan dust, dust emission mechanisms, transport processes, and climatic and environmental effects. Finally, we highlight the current challenges in the research on the eastward transport of Saharan dust and provide suggestions and ideas for future research.

National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is the main funding institution of fundamental research in China. Geography (or geographical science), as an important component of Earth sciences, is a fundamental discipline that studies the patterns of spatial differentiation, temporal evolution processes, and interaction mechanisms of natural factors, human elements, geographic information, and geographic complexes. It mainly includes three sub-disciplines: human geography, physical geography, and information geography. The acceptance of grant project application, the review of proposals, and the evaluation of project reports for the geography discipline are centrally managed by the discipline of Geography in the Department of Earth Sciences of NSFC. This paper introduces the application and acceptance, review process, deliberation, and funding status of the NSFC projects for the three major sub-disciplines of geography during the 2024 annual centralized acceptance period. A statistical analysis was conducted on the research outcomes of projects completed at the end of 2023, highlighting the main research advancements achieved by some selected projects.

Abnormal atmospheric warming on the Tibetan Plateau has caused an imbalance in Asian Water Towers, leading to widespread and frequent cryospheric disasters such as ice avalanches and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). These events pose a significant threat to life and infrastructure downstream, impacting regional socioeconomic development. Our recent studies, conducted during the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program, utilized field observations, remote sensing, and modeling to examine glacial lakes and GLOFs on the Tibetan Plateau. As of 2020, we had identified 14 310 glacial lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, covering an area of 1 148.3 km², along with a 20.4% increase in lake number and a 20.2% increase in lake area since 1990. Hazard and risk assessments revealed 1 256 glacial lakes with high or very high hazard levels, including 182 glacial lakes with high or very high-risk levels. These high-risk glacial lakes pose severe GLOF threats to communities and infrastructure downstream. At the regional scale, the eastern Himalayan and southeastern Tibetan regions exhibit the highest number of glacial lakes, the largest area expansion, the most destructive GLOF hazards, and the highest concentration of very high hazard level and very high-risk level glacial lakes on the Tibetan Plateau. In terms of administrative regions, Shigatse City, Nyingchi City, and Shannan City in the Tibet Autonomous Region have the highest distribution of very high-risk level glacial lakes. Future research should focus on precise GLOF assessments, the development of monitoring and early warning systems, and strategies for adapting to GLOF disaster chains and transboundary threats.

Significant advances in the formation mechanism and forecasting methods of severe convective winds and related convective systems were reviewed to improve understanding of the formation mechanism and forecast accuracy of severe convective winds. First, the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of severe convective winds worldwide are briefly described. Next, the relationship between the organizational types and structural features of the parent convective systems that generate severe convective winds is then summarized, as well as the impact of atmospheric environmental conditions and topography, and forecasting methods. Finally, the current issues and future research directions associated with severe convective winds are discussed.

Statistical analysis was conducted on submission, acceptance, review and grant funding of various projects managed by the discipline of Environmental Geosciences, Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China in 2024. Academic achievements of the completed projects in 2023 were partly summarized according to research subjects. This might provide enlightenment for potential project applicants.

Concerns about aviation emissions and climate change are shared internationally. The aviation industry plays a role in climate warming through its greenhouse gas and high-altitude particulate emissions. Conversely, climate warming alters flight conditions and increases extreme weather, impacts aviation operations and safety. The interaction creates a complex cycle of impacts, and research in this area is not only crucial for coordinating and adapting to climate changes in the aviation industry, but also holds scientific significance. An extensive literature review explores the relationship between aviation and climate warming, examining aviation’s CO₂ and non-CO₂ contributions to global warming and the phenomena and mechanisms by which climate warming in turn affects aviation (including changes in turbulence, flight time, aircraft performance degradation, and increased frequency of extreme events). The review also presents future research prospects. A deeper understanding of this interrelationship will help promote sustainable development of aviation and provide a scientific basis for addressing global climate challenges.

As one of the most significant cryospheric landforms that respond to climate warming in permafrost regions, thermokarst lakes profoundly influence ecological changes, regional hydrological cycles, and biogeochemical processes while compromising the stability of permafrost engineering. This study reviews recent advances in the formation and evolution of thermokarst lakes, their hydrological cycles, heat transfer, ecological and environmental effects, and engineering impacts across northern hemisphere permafrost regions. Research indicates that in the discontinuous permafrost zones of the Arctic, lake and pond areas show a predominantly decreasing trend, whereas, in continuous permafrost zones, both expansion and shrinkage are observed. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, climate warming and increased precipitation have led to the rapid formation and expansion of thermokarst lakes. The evolution of these lakes, coupled with hydrological cycling and thermal effects, alters the physicochemical properties of the surrounding soils, influences hydrothermal dynamics in alpine ecosystems, and reduces the stability of adjacent permafrost engineering structures. Furthermore, the development of thermokarst lakes accelerates the decomposition of permafrost carbon stocks, releasing greenhouse gases such as CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O, which further feedback into the climate system. Currently, coupled water-heat-carbon cycling processes and their environmental implications represent a key research focus in permafrost science. Future studies should comprehensively consider the interactive effects of climate change and human activities and, based on coupled water-heat-carbon cycling processes, develop high-precision land surface process models to investigate ecological succession, water resource dynamics, and carbon cycling in permafrost regions under changing environmental conditions, thereby advancing cryospheric science.

The Huangshui River Basin, a region highly sensitive to climate change, was selected as a case study to investigate the evolution of extreme runoff at a regional scale and its climatic driving mechanisms. Daily average flow data were collected from seven stations in the basin. Mann–Kendall trend analysis and mutation tests were applied to assess the interannual variation of extreme runoff and its associations with extreme precipitation and high temperatures. The results indicate that over the past 60 years, the extremely high flow index in the basin has significantly decreased, whereas the extremely low flow index has notably increased. The frequency index did not exhibit any significant trend; however, all indices demonstrated persistence. Mutations in the high-flow index occurred around 2000, whereas mutations in the low-flow and frequency indices occurred in 2010. Cyclic analysis revealed that all indices exhibited a short cycle of approximately 3 years, whereas the frequency index also showed a long cycle of 32.5 years. Runoff variations were significantly correlated with an overall increase in extreme precipitation intensity, a decrease in precipitation duration, and an intensification of extreme high temperatures in the basin. Extremely high flows showed a positive correlation with extreme precipitation and negative correlation with extreme high temperatures. By contrast, extremely low flows exhibited a primary positive correlation with extreme high temperatures and weaker correlation with extreme precipitation. These findings provide critical insights for water resource management and flood disaster mitigation in the Huangshui River Basin.

The Yellow River Basin is an important center of ecological civilization in China and its upstream and midstream water circulation processes have a notable impact on the overall water resource changes and distribution in the basin. Over the past 40 years, summer precipitation in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River has shown interannual variability, which is closely related to the water vapor content in the region. Compared with that in 1982-2002, the net water vapor input increased and evapotranspiration decreased significantly in 2003-2019 and the atmospheric water vapor content did not show significant interdecadal variability owing to the combined effect of both. Dynamic precipitation recycling model and moisture source attribution method were further used to investigate the moisture sources and contribution. Results show that the water vapor in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River mainly came from external input (83.4%) and local supply (11.4%), of which the sources of external input were the central Eurasian (32.5%), the Tibetan Plateau (23.6%), the South China Sea-western Pacific (12.3%), the South Asia-northern Indian Ocean (10.7%), and the North Africa-West Asian areas (4.3%). The interdecadal variation in the moisture contribution of each moisture source subregion were consistent with that in the local difference between evaporation and precipitation. Compared with that in 1982-2002, the water vapor supply capacity of the central Eurasian, North Africa-West Asian, and South China Sea-western Pacific areas increased in 2003-2019 and the moisture contribution showed an interdecadal increase, providing more water vapor to the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, which were the major moisture sources contributing to the increase in precipitation in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River. Conversely, evapotranspiration in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River showed a significant decrease. The results showed that evapotranspiration was negatively correlated with two-meter temperature, wind speed, and normalized difference vegetation index and positively correlated with shallow soil moisture (0~7 cm), with shallow soil moisture having the highest correlation. The drying of shallow soil moisture caused a significant decrease in evapotranspiration in most of the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, which, in turn, offset some of the increase in water vapor input, with precipitation showing mainly interannual variability.

In this study, we focused on the Huizhou region within the Pearl River Mouth Basin. Through meticulous analysis of well seismic data and adherence to sequence stratigraphy standardization principles, a refined stratigraphic sequence framework was established within the T35-T50 interval. This framework facilitated the recognition of 11 distinct phases that forced the regressive deposits, thereby enabling the identification of key characteristics specific to the Huizhou area. These characteristics include the presence of a muddy separation zone between the HST and the falling-stage systems tract, irregular thickness variations in forced regressive sandstone, occurrence of high-angle forests within forced regressive deposits, and presence of sharp-based sandstone. Furthermore, the sedimentary facies analysis of forced regressive deposits revealed that they belong to beach ridge sedimentary facies, indicative of wave-controlled delta environments. Owing to the favorable reservoir properties of forced regressive deposits, mud-rich zones generally exist between the HST, low stand systems tract, and transgressive system tract, which are beneficial for the development of stratigraphic traps. Moreover, this study observed distinctive characteristics in the forced regressive deposits, including a horsetail pattern of sedimentation diverging from northeast to southwest, suggesting the presence of a paleo-longshore current flowing in the same direction. This current is in accordance with the Guangdong coastal current, underscoring the regional hydrodynamic influences shaping the sedimentation patterns. Noteworthy findings from the sedimentary structure analyses of the FSST2 and FSST3 cores highlight varying tidal hydrodynamic influences across the study area. The northeastern region, in proximity to the paleo-Dongsha uplift, exhibited stronger tidal effects than the southwestern region, which remained predominantly influenced by wave action. This study identified two primary types of stratigraphic traps within forced regressive sandstone: abrupt and gradual peak-out traps formed in wedge-shaped sand bodies. Because of the presence of a mud-rich zone, these traps, which are characterized by favorable reservoir properties and peak-out features, present promising prospects as exploration targets for stratigraphic trap reservoirs.

Over more than 50 years of continuous research and technological innovation, Fengyun Meteorological Satellite System has achieved significant progress. 21 Fengyun satellites have been launched. Currently, eight of these satellites operate stably in orbit, forming a comprehensive observation system that includes geostationary orbit and sun-synchronous polar orbit satellites. By reviewing the development history and current status of Fengyun meteorological satellites and remote sensing instruments; the effectiveness of ground segments in data reception, processing, and operation; and the construction and service of application systems, the technical capabilities of Fengyun meteorological satellites, their ground segments, and application systems were comprehensively analyzed. Through comparative analysis with major countries around the world in terms of meteorological satellite network observations, remote sensing instrument technology, and ground segment operation capabilities, it was found that the Fengyun Meteorological Satellites not only have a complete orbit layout and remote sensing instrument configuration, but their remote sensing instrument detection capability has reached the advanced international level, although some performance indicators still have spcace for improvement. Ground segments have established efficient data reception, processing, and service processes with advanced data preprocessing technology and sub-pixel-level geolocation accuracy. The radiometric calibration accuracy is 3% in the visible and near infrared channels and 0.2 K in the infrared channels. In addition, the Fengyun Meteorological Satellite System has established a comprehensive and complete quantitative product system for atmospheric, land, marine, and space weather, and has established China Radiometric Calibration Sites for Chinese remote sensing satellites, and carried out validation of the remote sensing products. Fengyun satellite data have been widely used in various fields, such as weather forecasting, climate change research, ecological environment monitoring, and natural disaster warning, and their application level continues to advance. In the future, the Fengyun meteorological satellite observation system will aim to evolve towards establishing a hybrid-architecture space observation system, achieving comprehensive and precise perception of observation elements, enabling intelligent and efficient operation of satellite-ground systems, integrating emerging technologies in data processing, expanding remote sensing application scenarios, and fostering international cooperation and sharing.

Regulation indicators for sub-rainstorm quantities currently exhibit deficiencies in various aspects, such as connotation definition, temporal variability, spatial heterogeneity, and multi-objectiveness. These shortcomings have led to a subjective and retrospective evaluation delay in the construction of sponge facilities, thereby hindering the scientific, efficient, and rapid advancement of systematic, full-scale sponge city construction in China. Using the Zhupaichong Basin in Nanning City as an example, a sub rainstorm runoff simulation under multi-objective scenarios of the current underlying surface (2020) was conducted to address the aforementioned regulatory indicator issues. The spatial heterogeneity of the sub rainstorm total control rate and the corresponding comprehensive storage capacity of sponge facilities in this area were analyzed. The results indicated that the average sub-rainstorm total control rate in the study area ranges from 0.500 (0.25 years) to 0.257 (100 years), which is significantly below the 75% control rate target set for the construction of sponge cities in Nanning. To achieve this target, additional comprehensive storage capacities of sponge facilities (excluding external discharge) ranging from 200 m3/hm² (0.25 years) to 950 m3/hm² (100 years) and (including external discharge) from 70 m3/hm² (0.25 years) to 420 m3/hm² (100 years) are required. A quantitative guidance system framework for the continuous promotion of full-scale sponge city construction, termed the “Sub-rainstorm Total Control Rate and Storage Capacity Spatio-temporal Information Map,” was proposed. This framework can comprehensively address the various issues of sub rainstorm quantity regulation indicators and quantitatively guide the multistage design, construction, and operational effectiveness of various sponge facilities, thereby providing crucial support for the scientific, efficient, and rapid advancement of systematic full-scale sponge city construction in China.

In the summer of 2022, the Yangtze River Basin experienced unprecedented heat waves, drawing considerable attention from the scientific community. Affected by over a month of record-breaking high temperatures and droughts, this extreme event not only caused escalating losses to human health, the economy, and the environment, but also exacerbated food insecurity and hindered sustainable development. Therefore, a more comprehensive understanding of extreme heat in the Yangtze River Basin during the summer of 2022 is essential to identify the drivers of extreme event variability under global warming, assess the impacts of human activity and natural variability, and evaluate potential climate risks. This study first reviews the main characteristics, formation mechanisms, and causes of the extreme heat in the Yangtze River Basin in the summer of 2022, and further summarizes the research progress on the event over the past three years. The results showed that the 2022 summer high temperature in the Yangtze River Basin was a rare extreme heat event. Its occurrence was primarily driven by atmospheric circulation anomalies related to the western Pacific subtropical high and the South Asian high, the triple La Niña phenomenon, the Atlantic and Indian SST forcing, and land-atmosphere feedback mechanism (e.g., soil moisture and air temperature). In addition to natural variability, human activity is the dominant factor influencing heat extremes. Without anthropogenic forcing, such extremes would have been highly unlikely. Such rare heat waves are projected to become more frequent under ongoing global warming. Finally, the paper highlights key research challenges and knowledge gaps associated with extreme heat events.

The atmospheric boundary layer processes and structural characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are significantly influenced by thermal and dynamic effects in the region. The existing observational data are insufficient to comprehensively reveal the complex formation, development, and evolutionary mechanisms of the TP boundary layer of the TP. Therefore, the use of numerical simulations to investigate these processes and explain their underlying mechanisms has become an effective approach. First, this study reviews the numerical models commonly used for atmospheric boundary layer simulations and the widely adopted parameterization schemes within these models. Second, we present recent research and findings in the field of numerical simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer of the TP, including studies on the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of the boundary layer height, simulations of the boundary layer structure and its influencing mechanisms in typical regions (such as areas with significant topography and lakes), comparative assessments of different boundary layer parameterization schemes in the region, and the impact of model resolution on the simulation outcomes. Finally, the paper concludes by addressing the persistent challenges in simulating PBL processes over the TP, particularly the biases in modeling PBL height and near-surface meteorological variables. It outlines potential strategies for advancing simulation accuracy, including improvements in boundary layer parameterization schemes, careful selection of model resolution, optimization of driving and verification data, and refinement of other physical parameterizations. These insights are intended to provide new directions for future research, with the aim of enhancing the simulation of PBL structure and processes over the TP.

With the rapid development of the economy, pollution of the coastal marine environment has become increasingly serious, resulting in an evident decline in environmental quality and deterioration of ecosystems, which have harmful effects on biological resources and human health. Benthic foraminifera, as indicator organisms of marine environments, have the characteristics of small size, wide distribution, high density and species diversity, short life cycles, good preservation potential in marine sediments, and high sensitivity to various pollutants, all of which play an important role in monitoring marine environmental pollution and changes in marine ecosystems. In this study, we reviewed the effects of natural environmental factors, such as temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, sediment grain size, organic matter, and water depth and anthropogenic pollutants, such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, and nutrients on the shell morphology, species abundance, community composition, and diversity of benthic foraminifera. We summarized the response indicators of benthic foraminifera to marine environmental changes. The microscopic characteristics of the benthic foraminifera, such as pore density, porosity, and chemical composition, such as Mg/Ca and B/Ca, can be used to indicate marine climate changes, including ocean warming, ocean acidification, and low oxygen. Decrease in benthic foraminiferal community diversity, increase in tolerant species abundance, and decrease in sensitive species abundance can be used as indicators of marine environmental pollution. In addition, we pointed out problems that require attention and directions for future research. Currently, most foraminiferal studies use different techniques and methods. The lack of standardized methods for sample collection, preparation, processing, and data analysis makes it impossible to compare the results of most studies. In addition, the response mechanisms of benthic foraminifera to environmental changes are unclear. Therefore, future studies should explore the genetic mechanisms of benthic foraminiferal responses to environmental changes at the gene level by integrating genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics with species ecology. The purpose of this study was to provide a theoretical basis for using benthic foraminifera to reconstruct and predict marine climate change and indicate modern marine environment quality.

This paper first introduces in detail the scientific Fund review of Geophysics and Space physics Discipline of the Earth Science Department of the National Natural Science Foundation of China in 2024. Secondly, it focuses on the analysis of the application and funding of various projects：except for key projects, the number of applications for other projects has continued to grow, with the largest increase in general projects reaching 36.36%. The age of applicants for general projects, Young Scientists' Fund projects, and Earth Science Fund projects is mainly under 45 years old, and the proportion of academic qualifications and professional titles is roughly the same as in previous years. Six applicant institutions have applied for more than 50 projects. In 2024, the total funding for various projects reached 26 849.5 million yuan. In addition, the completion of the projects in 2023 and the important research progress achieved in the subfields of geodesy, solid geophysics, applied geophysics, and space physics were summarized.

As the world’s largest developing country and infrastructure powerhouse, China not only has an extremely high demand for concrete but also increasingly focuses on enhancing the durability of concrete to delay aging and improving its resistance to seawater corrosion. Ancient Roman concrete, reflecting the wisdom of the Romans, possesses remarkable durability and corrosion resistance, which has attracted extensive research from scholars across various fields. By collecting petrological information from the volcanic area of the Roman volcanic province and comparing the mineralogical changes of ancient Roman concrete before and after exposure to seawater, it is found that the use of high-alumina volcanic ash and the formation of secondary aluminum silicate minerals are crucial for the high durability and corrosion resistance of ancient Roman concrete. The study discovers that ancient Roman concrete contains materials such as quicklime, volcanic ash, and ceramic fragments. The reaction between high-alumina volcanic ash and quicklime, as well as ceramic fragments in the aggregates, form a structure composed of C-A-H, C-S-H, and C-A-S-H, which effectively bond the aggregates. Over time, these C-A-S-H compounds can crystallize into minerals such as tobermorite and phillipsite. These special minerals not only exhibit high mechanical strength but also adsorb harmful ions during interaction with seawater, thereby protecting the concrete from seawater corrosion. Additionally, the material composition of ancient Roman concrete has a unique self-healing mechanism, allowing it to spontaneously fill cracks. As an artificial rock, ancient Roman concrete demonstrates unique advantages in durability and corrosion resistance. A systematic study of its petrological characteristics can provide theoretical guidance for the development of modern concrete and other geological materials.

Borehole collapse pressure prediction plays a key role in drilling safety, reducing construction costs, and realizing efficient drilling. Fracture development under complex ultra-deep geological conditions significantly affects the prediction of borehole collapse pressure. Conventional methods rely on finite element simulations for 3D geomechanical modeling and 3D collapse stress prediction, which although, highly accurate, requires substantial computational resources. To address this issue, the study proposes an efficient and rapid in situ stress modeling method driven by seismic data, utilized for 3D collapse pressure prediction. Initially, a combined spring model with curvature properties is developed using a multi-scale data of pre-stack seismic and rock mechanics logging to model a three three-dimensional in situ stress field efficiently and rapidly. Next, based on the maximum likelihood attribute, the fracture development was obtained from 3D seismic data to provide 3D weak surface attribute parameters for the study area. Finally, the collapse model of sliding along the fracture plane was calculated using the Mohr-Coulomb criterion. This enables the collapse pressure prediction of the fractured formation from one-dimensional logging data to a three-dimensional working area. This method was applied to the woodworking area of Tari, with results showing a high agreement between model predictions measured data, reaching 93.79%. The prediction results also aligned well with formation micro-resistivity scanning imaging interpretations, verifying the method’s feasibility for predicting borehole wall collapse events. This study demonstrates that rapid, high precision modeling of collapse pressure can provide an integrated geological engineering solution for drilling in ultra-deep and complex areas.

Turbulence plays a crucial role in the exchange of mass and energy between the surface and the atmosphere, controlling the heat transfers to the atmosphere and regulating the transfer and dissipation of kinetic energy in large-, meso- and micro-scale motions. However, the current study of atmospheric turbulence in the surface layer is usually simplified to stationary turbulence with homogeneity. However, the turbulence in the real atmosphere usually exhibits the non-stationary characteristics of non-homogeneity due to multiple factors (e.g. underlying surface heterogeneity). In this study, we summarize and review the domestic and international research on turbulent flux under non-stationary conditions in the surface layer, and also review the characteristics of non-stationary turbulence (e.g. intermittency, asymmetry, and inhomogeneity). The mechanism behind the emergence of non-stationary turbulence can be attributed to dynamic and thermal factors. This paper discusses five methods for stationarity examination of turbulent time series and the currently used algorithm for non-stationary turbulent fluxes calculation in the near-surface layer (i.e., wavelet analysis method). It finds that there is significant potential for advancement in current calculations of non-stationary turbulent fluxes. The method of introducing known non-stationary information into turbulent data to obtain the “true value of turbulent flux” offers new insights for future research on non-stationary turbulence.

The application, peer-reviewing and funding statistic data of different types of projects in the discipline of Marine and Polar Sciences (Code: D06) in the Department of Earth Science at National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) in the year of 2024 are analyzed in this article. Issues found in the management of NSFC funds are summarized as well. The information could help researchers to improve the quality of their proposals for NSFC funds and final reports of completed projects. In summary, D06 received proposals in General Program, Youth Science Fund, and Less Developed Regions Fund from 409 institutions in 2024, 46 more than last year. The number of proposals received in D06 raises to a new record of 3 191, 702 more than last year. In terms of final reports of completed projects, more projects added NSFC project number into the acknowledgement of their publications. However, the quality of some final reports could still be improved according to the rules.

Short-duration heavy precipitation is one of the most substantial severe convective disasters in China and is prone to causing urban waterlogging and secondary geological disasters, such as mountain torrents, mudslides, and landslides. This paper reviews recent progress in short-duration heavy precipitation research in China and briefly compares relevant findings from the United States and Europe. It covers the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and diurnal variation patterns of short-duration heavy precipitation, atmospheric circulation patterns and environmental conditions that influence its occurrence and development in major regions of China, radar echo characteristics and raindrop distributions, impact of topography and urbanization on its formation and development, and application of artificial intelligence in potential forecasting, short-term forecasting, and nowcasting of short-duration heavy precipitation in China. With global warming, the frequency and intensity of short-duration heavy precipitation events have increased. In the future, further research will be required to enhance understanding of the formation mechanisms and environmental conditions, improve the spatiotemporal resolution of observations, expand the use of new observation data, and enhance forecasting capabilities in high-resolution, rapid-update cycle assimilation numerical weather prediction models through the fusion and analysis of dense multisource observation data. Additionally, optimizing deep learning models and algorithms—particularly in the development of largescale deep learning models—will be crucial for improving forecasting and early warning capabilities for short-duration heavy precipitation.

Since 1958, China has conducted numerous artificial fog dissipation field experiments and research. This paper summarizes the classification and characteristics of fog as well as the mechanisms and methods of artificial fog dissipation. Fog areas in China are extensively distributed, with obvious seasonal differences. Land fog is mostly radiation fog, whereas sea fog is distributed in foggy areas along the coast, and its formation and dissipation are restricted by various conditions. The methods and technical approaches for artificial warm and cold fog dissipation were determined. The dissipation methods for warm fog include heating, dynamic mixing, thermodynamic methods, and hygroscopic particle seeding; whereas the dissipation methods for cold fog include seeding silver iodide of ice nucleating agents and spraying refrigerants. Other methods such as ultrasound are currently being researched and tested. The applicability, advantages, disadvantages, and uncertainties of these seeding methods were analyzed. The applicability of the fog dissipation methods varies. When applying these methods, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the technical approaches, implementation challenges, cost-effectiveness, and fog dissipation efficacy in field trials and operational applications. Aircraft-induced downdraft mixing is a simple, expensive, and operationally challenging process for warm fog. Thermal heating is universally applicable to all warm fog types but is cost-prohibitive and reserved for emergencies or critical infrastructure (e.g., major international airports and vital seaports), particularly for high-temperature fog. For cold fog, silver iodide seeding exhibits poor nucleation efficiency at temperatures around -5 ℃ (optimal below -8 ℃), necessitating cooling agents like liquid nitrogen, dry ice, and propane. Despite its high cost, liquid-nitrogen seeding is preferred operationally owing to its reliability and ease of deployment.All the current methods can dissipate local small-range warm or cold fog, but none can dissipate large-scale fog systems. A comprehensive analysis of fog dissipation provided ideas and references for artificial fog dissipation experiments, seeding operations, and future development in China. Future research should integrate numerical modeling, laboratory experiments, and field trials to validate and optimize seeding techniques and enhance the operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

Humanity’s current water problems range from local-scale issues such as water supply to regional- and global-scale issues including protecting ecosystems, responding to global changes, sustaining the earth system, etc. Water resources exploitation, land utilization and climate changes have intensified pressure on water cycle through water distribution, interconnection, and virtual flows. The impact of anthropogenic pressure on water cycle has extended beyond the catchment-scale, with human activities becoming the primary driving force behind changes in regional, continental and global water cycle. Estimations by planetary boundaries framework indicated that development of global blue water and green water is approaching or beyond water planetary boundaries posing increased rising risks to earth system stabilization. Current water governance, which is focused on catchment scale and water-centric approaches, struggles to address the complexity of these issues. Governance must shift to manage not only increasing water use for economic and societal development, but also the roles and functions of water cycle in sustaining biosphere and Earth systems. Moreover, it should consider the equitable distribution of ecological services provided by water cycle. Concepts of water resilience and the economics of water as a common good enhance the conventional understanding of the water cycle, highlighting its essential role in sustain Earth systems and the cross-scale effects of human activities. Future, water resources governance is likely to evolve in three directions: from blue water management to blue-green water management, from integrated water-centric management to integrated land-water-ecosystem management, and from integrated river basin management to multi-scale management. It is critical for promoting transformation of water governance to strengthen cooperation among scientists of different fields in research of basic theory of water cycle, management policies and governance institutions.

Wind and solar energy have unparalleled advantages in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting energy transitions. However, the construction of onshore wind/solar farms occupies a tremendous amount of land resources and changes land use considerably. The operation of power generation facilities further changes the local microclimate and ecohydrological processes, profoundly affecting terrestrial carbon cycle processes. Therefore, it is important to clarify the potential impacts of wind/solar farms on the carbon cycle process at the site for sustainable development of the new energy industry. A systematic review of the research undertaken over the past two decades was conducted in this study, with special emphasis on the carbon cycle characteristics, impact mechanisms, and the dynamics and stability of carbon pools in onshore wind/solar farms. The results indicate that these wind/solar farms have the potential to improve local climate conditions, promote the restoration of vegetation, and thus increase the carbon sequestration potential in arid desert environments. However, considerable uncertainties exist regarding the recovery potential of either vegetation or soil carbon pools for wind/solar farms. We argue that there is an urgent need to \mathrm{①} conduct multi-scale and long-term monitoring of the carbon cycling processes in wind/solar farms, \mathrm{②} strengthen research on the synergistic mechanisms of the above- and below-ground carbon processes in onshore wind/solar farms, and \mathrm{③} quantitatively determine the carbon sequestration potential and its spatial and temporal characteristics in wind/solar farms. These efforts are expected to provide scientific references for sustainable design, management, and development of renewable energy sources in the future.

Summer heat extremes are among the major meteorological disasters in China, posing severe threats to public health, economic and social development, and natural ecosystems. To address the nation's urgent need for managing heat-related disaster risks, we independently developed a prediction model system for summer heat extremes in China, based on new scientific insights. Since 2018, the model system has demonstrated stable and reliable predictive capabilities, relatively accurately capturing the spatial patterns and anomalies of summer heat extremes. In May 2025, using this system, we predicted that the number of summer hot days in 2024 would be 12.55 days, which is 2.69 days more than the average of normal years (1991-2020). The forecast also indicated more severe heat extremes, elevated disaster risks, and pronounced regional differences. The most significant above-normal heat extremes were expected in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Basin, South China, the Sichuan Basin, southern Xinjiang, northern Jiangsu, and northern Anhui. These were followed by the Beijing-Tianjin Plain, Shandong, Henan, southern Shaanxi, parts of northeastern China, parts of Gansu, and northern Ningxia. Based on these findings, we also provide response recommendations to prevent and mitigate the impacts of summer heat extremes across China.