This paper systematically analyzes the application, acceptance, evaluation, and funding of the projects managed by the Geochemistry Discipline (Application Code: D03) in the Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China in 2025, and reviews the project completion in 2024. Compared with 2024, the number of applications for the Fund for the Less Developed Regions increased in 2025, while the General Program and Young Scientists Fund (C) showed a slight decrease. For two consecutive years, the number of applications for the Young Scientists Fund (C) has been significantly lower than that of the General Program. In the past five years, the total number of host institutions applying for projects has kept increasing continuously, and Earth’s surface geochemistry (D0310) has become a new growth point of the discipline. In 2025, four projects in the Geochemistry discipline were not accepted due to failure to provide required supporting materials. The review submission rates of the General Program, Young Scientists Fund (C), and Fund for the Less Developed Regions were 154.7%, 154.7%, and 141.7%, respectively. The funding rates were 17.9%, 18.4%, and 11.1%, respectively. The average funding amounts were 531 000 yuan per project, 300 000 yuan per project, and 309 000 yuan per project, respectively. The completion outcomes of the General Program, Young Scientists Fund (C), and Fund for the Less Developed Regions in 2024, as well as the Young Scientists Fund (B) projects approved in 2021, indicate that the overall quality of funding achievements and first-labeled achievements needs further improvement. In recent years, the geochemistry discipline has remained characterized by a relatively small number of applications and slow growth. In the future, on the basis of maintaining the advantageous directions of the discipline, efforts should be made to strengthen the in-depth integration of basic research with goal orientation and national needs, and to promote interdisciplinary, cross-disciplinary, and transdisciplinary research, so as to expand both the depth and breadth of geochemistry research.

Studying the supply-demand relationship of ecosystem services and implementing zoned management are crucial for reconciling ecological protection with socioeconomic development in ecologically fragile regions. This study takes Naiman Banner, a typical sandy land area in Northern China, as a case study. We quantified the supply of key ecosystem services (e.g., water yield, carbon sequestration, and soil conservation) from 2000 to 2020 using the InVEST model, while the demand was assessed based on socioeconomic data. Spatiotemporal patterns were analyzed using hotspot-cold spot analysis, and the driving mechanisms behind the comprehensive ecosystem service supply-demand ratio were investigated using the GeoDetector model. The results revealed three key findings. First, over the two decades, the overall supply capacity of ecosystem services in Naiman Banner increased by 19.81%, whereas the demand decreased by 11.09%. Consequently, the overall supply-demand ratio improved significantly by 39.73%, indicating a substantial enhancement in ecological sustainability. Spatially, the comprehensive supply-demand ratio exhibited a distinct pattern of ‘surplus in the north and south with a deficit in the center’, primarily shaped by the regional landscape configuration and the intensity of human activities. Second, factor detection identified that the proportion of forest land was the primary driver of hotspot areas (high supply-demand ratio), underscoring the critical role of afforestation and forest conservation. Conversely, the proportion of sandy land was identified as the core driver of cold spot areas (low supply-demand ratio), highlighting the impact of desertification. Third, based on an integrated analysis of the comprehensive supply-demand ratio, its spatial matching relationship, and the proportional areas of hotspots and cold spots, a systematic ecological management zoning scheme was developed. Naiman Banner was categorized into six secondary and ten tertiary zones, which were classified into four major types: ecological conservation, ecological restoration, ecological enhancement, and ecological development. Targeted and differentiated management strategies were proposed for each zone. This research provides a scientific basis for precise ecological protection and sustainable socio-economic development in Naiman Banner, offering a replicable framework for similar arid and semi-arid regions.

In 2023, the Naiman trona deposit in Inner Mongolia was discovered, representing the second-largest trona deposit in the world and the largest in Asia, with proven trona resources estimated at approximately 2.077 billion tons. This discovery presents a significant opportunity for the restructuring of China’s soda ash industry. The global and domestic development status of trona was comprehensively reviewed, highlighting the necessity for China’s soda ash industry to significantly increase its reliance on trona to enhance its international competitiveness. Considering the distinctive geological characteristics and resource distribution of the Naiman trona deposit, characterized by high associated oil and gas reserves, co-occurrence with salt and soda, deep burial, and steep inclination, three major engineering challenges were posed during the development process. \mathrm{①} Hydrocarbons are enriched within the crystal lattices and fracture networks of trona and halite layers, as well as within the pore spaces and bedding fractures of the surrounding mudstone, resulting in severe oil emulsification during solution mining. \mathrm{②} Nearly half of the Naiman trona deposit is composed of low-to-moderate salinity trona, for which cost-effective and high-efficiency salt-soda separation technologies have yet to be developed. \mathrm{③} The engineering complexity of horizontal well construction is markedly increased by deep burial depth, steep formation dip, and the presence of funnel-shaped structural blocks. Future research should prioritize the development of high-performance and environmentally benign demulsifiers, the integrated and coordinated utilization of co-occurring salt and soda resources, and high-precision horizontal well construction technologies enabled by multidisciplinary integration, thereby supporting the efficient and sustainable exploitation of the Naiman trona deposit.

The Division Ⅴ (Atmospheric Sciences Discipline) of the Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), has successfully completed the application, mail review, panel review, and funding results summary for the General Program, Young Scientists Fund (C), and Fund for Less Developed Regions in 2025. The total number of applications for the above three types of projects in the discipline of atmospheric sciences from 2020 to 2025 has shown a continuous increase trend. Among them, a total of 2, 436 applications are received in 2025, showing an increase of 5.4% compared with 2024. The comprehensive scores of the mail reviews for these three types of projects have slightly decreased compared with previous years. To encourage high-risk and high-value fundamental research and explore the selection and funding model for the “non-consensus projects”, the Atmospheric Sciences Discipline has, for the first time, nominated the “non-consensus projects” to undergo the panel review process. Considering the overall layout of the discipline, it is encouraged to moderately tilt towards the Supporting Technology and development fields (secondary application codes D0508 to D0514). Under the equal conditions, preference is given to female applicants. After the panel review, the Atmospheric Science Discipline has funded a total of 419 projects in the above three categories, with an average funding rate of 17.2%. In 2024, a total of 383 projects of these three types are concluded, and the indicators such as the number of publications is basically the same as those in 2023.

This paper analyzed the application, acceptance, and review funding overview of Marine Science and Polar Science (Application Code: D06) in 2025, summarized the project completion in 2024, and sorted out and proposed the problems found in the project management process. Overall, the number of applications for General Program, Less Developed Regions Fund, and Youth Science Fund Projects (C) continued to grow in 2025, with a total of 3 528 proposals and an increase of 337 proposals compared with 2024. The number of applying institutions was 467 with an increase of 58 compared with 2024. Regarding the completed projects, the standardization of the completion reports for projects completed at the end of 2024 has improved, but some projects still have problems such as inconsistent content between the published achievements and the research goals in the proposal, and insufficient condensation of major achievements.

Chinese Maifanite, a natural mineral from Naiman Banner,Tongliao City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, has potential applications in water purification, environmental remediation, healthcare, and agricultural improvement. Weathering processes alter the physicochemical properties of Maifanite, thereby influencing its heavy metal adsorption performance. This research systematically investigated Maifanite samples collected from different depths in the southern mountainous mining area of Naiman Banner, conducted comprehensive analyses including weathering degree assessment, heavy metal adsorption experiments, and prevention and control mechanism studies combining physicochemical characterization. The research reveals that Naiman Banner Maifanite primarily undergoes physical weathering. Based on macroscopic characteristics, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), and weathering coefficient K_f , deep-layer samples were identified as slightly weathered, while surface samples exhibited moderate to strong weathering. Weathering increased the specific surface area of Maifanite by 66.81%, reduced pores smaller than 3.6 nm, and increased pores between 3.6~4.0 nm from 12.36% to 40.05%. Additionally, weathering caused the destruction of quartz and plagioclase crystals, leaching of alkaline elements (Na, Mg, Si, K, Ca). The zero potential point shifted markedly from 7.09 to below 2. Notably, deep-layer Maifanite demonstrated preferential adsorption toward anionic chromium (Cr)-a characteristic groundwater contaminant-with a maximum theoretical adsorption capacity of 0.90 mg/g. Conversely, surface-weathered Maifanite exhibited enhanced adsorption capacity for cationic cadmium (Cd)-a typical soil pollutant-reaching 5.57 mg/g. The adsorption process, comprising three distinct stages (surface diffusion, mesopore diffusion, and micropore diffusion), achieved equilibrium within 24 hours. Multilayer heavy metal adsorption mechanisms were predominantly governed by electrostatic interactions with additional contributions from surface hydroxyl complexation. In conclusion, natural geological weathering induces significant physicochemical modifications in Maifanite, including the observed zero potential point shift, which collectively enhance its capacity for comprehensive heavy metal prevention and control in both soil and groundwater systems. This research provides crucial theoretical foundations for the sustainable development and utilization of Naiman Banner Maifanite in groundwater purification applications.

Statistical analysis was conducted on submission, acceptance, review and grant funding of various projects managed by Division of Environmental Geosciences, Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China in 2025. Academic achievements of the completed projects in 2024 were partly summarized according to research subjects. This might provide enlightenment for potential project applicants.

Naiman Banner is located in an arid and semi-arid region and represents a typical agro-pastoral ecotone. Agricultural production in this area has long been constrained by complex natural conditions and the fragmented spatial distribution of cropland, resulting in an unclear understanding of the current state of farmland utilization. This, in turn, limits the region’s capacity for agricultural resource management and targeted policy implementation. Conducting an analysis of farmland utilization in Naiman Banner is therefore crucial for promoting high-quality agricultural development in agro-pastoral transitional zones and supporting the national food security strategy. In this study, Naiman Banner was selected as the research area. Based on Landsat 8 time-series imagery, the spatial distribution of major grain crops from 2020 to 2024 was extracted using the random forest method. Additionally, Jilin-1 high-resolution remote sensing imagery was used in combination with a multi-scale segmentation algorithm and the U-Net model to obtain cropland field parcels and road data for 2020 and 2024, respectively. On this basis, an evaluation index system for assessing the level of farmland infrastructure construction in the region was established. By integrating the extracted spatial distribution of major grain crops, this study focuses on analyzing the spatiotemporal patterns of major grain crops, the level of farmland infrastructure construction, and their interrelationship in Naiman Banner. Results showed a steady increase in the planting area of major grain crops over the five-year period, with a cumulative net growth of 22 673.46 hm², representing a 12.9% increase. Planting areas gradually shifted from general farmland to well-facilitated farmland. Meanwhile, agricultural infrastructure was continuously improved, with significantly higher development levels observed in well-facilitated farmland areas compared to general farmland. Further analysis revealed that regions with higher levels of agricultural infrastructure exhibited higher utilization rates of staple crops, demonstrating clear spatial consistency and a positive correlation. These findings provide provide technical support and decision-making references for regional agricultural resource management, optimization of infrastructure allocation, and food security assurance.

National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is the main funding institution of fundamental research in China. Geography (or Geographical science), as an important component of the Earth sciences, is a fundamental discipline that studies the patterns of spatial differentiation, temporal evolution processes, and interaction mechanisms of natural factors, human elements, geographic information, and geographic complexes. It mainly includes three sub-disciplines: human geography, physical geography, and information geography. The acceptance of grant project application, the review of proposals, and the evaluation of project reports for the geography discipline are centrally managed by the Division of Geography in the Department of Earth Science of NSFC. Here, We focus on three types of projects managed by the Division of Geography, namely the General, Young, and Rrgional Programs. This paper introduces the application and acceptance, review process, deliberation, and funding status of the three types of projects for the three major sub-disciplines of geography during the 2025 annual centralized acceptance period. A statistical analysis was conducted on the research outcomes of projects completed at the end of 2024, highlighting the main research advancements achieved by some selected projects. Additionally, the main issues identified in the project completion and progress reports were summarized.

The Horqin Sandy Lands, located in the ecologically sensitive transitional belt between semi-arid and semi-humid climatic zones, support a complex mosaic of ecosystems characterized by inherent vulnerability and represent one of the most severely desertified regions in northern China. Despite its environmental significance, comprehensive studies that systematically integrate the biogeographical mechanisms underlying desertification with rigorous assessments of control efficacy in this region remain notably scarce. The region's comparatively substantial groundwater resources are fundamentally underpinned by an extensive and porous sandy sedimentary stratum, measuring 80 to 200 meters in thickness, which serves as a critical aquifer system. The period from 1985 to 2000 witnessed remarkable progress in desertification control, marked by a significant reversal in land degradation trends. Nevertheless, the subsequent phase post-2000 has been defined by a pronounced operational bottleneck, manifesting as a markedly decelerated rate of reduction in desertified land area and a stagnating trajectory in the recovery of biomass. In the context of ongoing climate change, the foremost challenge confronting sustainable desertification management in the Horqin Sandy Lands is escalating water resource stress, which threatens the longevity of past restoration gains and future initiatives. This review systematically synthesizes and critically evaluates a substantial body of research pertaining to the geographical foundations of ecological vulnerability, the dynamic processes and mechanisms of desertification and ecological recovery, and the intricate interrelationships between biological productivity fluxes and groundwater dynamics. By constructing a comprehensive synthesis from these diverse research strands, this review aims to elucidate the complete narrative of desertification control tracing its foundations, achievements, and contemporary challenges， thereby providing a robust theoretical framework and empirical evidence base to inform the scientific management of soil and water resources and to guide the sustainable restoration of degraded landscapes in the Horqin Sandy Lands.

Microbes are known to show a great spatiotemporal distribution, and exert extensive and intensive geological agents in both modern days and Earth history. These features make the microbes play important roles on great changes of Earth environments, enabling important and wide applications in geoengineering including the pollutant remediation, decrease of atmospheric CO₂, geohazards prevention, as well as toxicity decrease. This necessitates the cross-disciplinary construction from microbial Earth to microbial geoengineering.It is well known that microbes, the engineer of elemental geochemical cycles, have played the key roles in the geoengineering fields including carbon sink, ecological remediation and the agriculture practice. The carbon pump and the microbial carbon pump, the important mechanisms to transport the atmospheric CO₂ into the sediments or seawater, are documented to mainly regulate by the microbial communities either in the sea or on the land. Microbes are widely involved into, and known as the engineer of, the geochemical cycles of greenhouse gases including CH₄, CO₂ and N₂O. These microbial processes could be exploited in the geoengineering to promote the carbon sink or decrease the carbon release. Microbial transformation of a series of metal ions as well as the degradation on organics has been widely used in the ecological remediation of polluted environments. Microbial release of elements including carbon, nitrogen, phosphor etc., from a variety of minerals is applied in agriculture practice. The artificial microbial mixtures on the basis of natural communities could be used as the nature-based fertilizers in the farming practice. Microbial roles, played on the precipitation and erosion of minerals, could also be applied into rocks and soils engineering, deep Earth engineering and mining industry. The microbial application to these geoengineerings will greatly save the costs, remarkably promote efficiency and noticeably protect the natural environments. Microbial transformation of the expansive clay minerals into no-expansive ones could be applied into the oil recovery by water flooding as well as the rocks and soils geotechnical engineering. Carbonate factory is known to be primarily induced by microbial communities via the precipitation of calcium carbonate from the fluids which could be introduced into the building of artificial islands in the sea, the filling and repairing of rock cracks, cementation of coarse grains in a variety of geoengineering. Microbial erosion of minerals could be exploited into the mining industry via the release of metals of economic significance from ores. The presence of the so-called deep biosphere, featured by the dominance of extreme environment microbes, will exert positive and negative effects on the underground storage of dangerous materials including the nuclear wastes, CO₂ and hydrogen gas. The investigations on the microbial roles on these materials as well as the storage containers are of in particular importance.Whilst most microbial geoengineering has been conducted to prevent and control the geohazards that have come into being in natural environments, microbes could further provide the early warning of some geohazards including the biotic or ecological crisis, climatic and environmental disasters, as well as landslides due to their sensitive response to minor environmental changes. To construct the early warning geoengineering via the on-site filed observatory network is of importance so that we could take some measures to prevent the occurrence of the geohazards, or make the positive use of the microbial roles but suppress the negative roles.

As a water conservation area in the Horqin agro-pastoral ecotone, Naiman Banner boasts strontium and metasilicic acid-rich groundwater, which provides opportunities for groundwater health research and mineral water development. This study selected the southern mountainous area of Naiman Banner, Inner Mongolia, as the target area. Based on hydrogeological surveys and test data from 37 groups of groundwater samples, hydrogeochemical analysis methods were employed to reveal the spatial differentiation patterns and formation mechanisms of strontium-rich and metasilicic acid groundwater. Results indicated that the groundwater in the study area is neutral weak alkaline, with HCO₃-Ca as the main hydrochemical type. The strontium content ranges from 0.24 to 1.83 mg/L, and the metasilicic acid content ranges from 14.9 to 29.9 mg/L. The strontium rich metasilicic acid composite groundwater is distributed around the Maifanshi mining area in the area. The weathering and dissolution of carbonate rocks and silicate rocks, as well as the alternating adsorption of cations, promote the enrichment of strontium in groundwater. Indoor experiments have shown that the leaching of vermiculite is beneficial for the formation of metasilicic groundwater. The study also indicates that the pore fissure aquifer in the area has the potential for industrialized development of strontium and metasilicic acid-rich mineral water, providing scientific basis for rural revitalization and coordinated utilization of geological resources.

The farming-pastoral zone in Naiman Banner is located in the hinterland of Horqin Sandy Land. The research on the formation mechanism and background values of groundwater hydrochemistry supports the allocation of water resources and the green development of agriculture and animal husbandry. Based on hydrogeological survey and hydrogeochemical analysis, combined with self-organizing map neural network (SOM) and K-means clustering hybrid algorithm, this study revealed the characteristics of groundwater chemical composition, main controlling factors, and environmental background values. Results indicated significant spatial heterogeneity in groundwater chemistry, with HCO₃-Ca·Mg as the predominant hydrochemical type and weakly alkaline characteristics. Groundwater chemical evolution is primarily driven by dissolution-precipitation of carbonate minerals and weathering of silicate minerals, and controlled by alternating positive cation adsorption. The apparent background values of Total Fe (TFe), F^-, TDS and NO₃-N, key indicators affecting the quality of groundwater in Naiman Banner, were 0.42~0.56 mg/L, 0.34~0.38 mg/L, 181~188 mg/L and 0.22~1.58 mg/L, respectively, which were estimated by using a coupled approach of hydrogeochemical graphic method, Grubbs test and SOM. The high background of TFe may be related to siderite dissolution, while the F^- enrichment is controlled by fluorite dissolution and alternating positive cation adsorption. This research elucidates the groundwater background values and hydrochemical formation mechanisms in the farming-pastoral zone of Naiman Banner, providing scientific support for the optimization management of regional water resources, pollution prevention, and ecological conservation.

The Naiman trona deposit in Inner Mongolia is a supergiant deposit discovered in recent years in China, with identified resources of 2.077 billion tons, making it the largest trona deposit so far discovered in China and even in Asia. The deposit is located in the Naiman Sag on the southwestern margin of the Songliao Basin and is hosted in strata of the Lower Cretaceous Yixian-Jiufotang formations. It is characterized by high ore grade, great ore-layer thickness, relatively deep burial, and complex mineralogical composition. Vertically, it consists of interbedded trona ore layers, rock-salt layers and mudstones, forming as many as 118 sedimentary cycles, while horizontally it exhibits a lenticular distribution. Seven Na-carbonate minerals, including trona, nahcolite and natrocalcite, and eight associated minerals, including halite, anhydrite and searlesite, have been identified. A key scientific question is why large-scale trona enrichment took place in the Naiman area during the Early Cretaceous greenhouse period under an extensional tectonic regime. The ore-forming mechanism may be investigated from the following aspects: conducting in-depth studies on the role of fault systems as channels for hydrothermal fluid migration in an extensional setting, and on the effects of continuous basin subsidence on the formation and preservation of ore layers; resolving the material contributions of volcanic rock weathering, deep magmatic-hydrothermal fluids and high atmospheric CO₂ concentrations by means of geochemical tracing techniques; precisely constraining the timing of mineralization by integrating radiometric dating with biostratigraphic methods; and elucidating the controlling mechanisms of paleoclimate and paleoenvironment on trona sedimentary cycles through a combination of paleoclimatic-paleogeographic proxies and sedimentary cycle analysis. Through this integrated metallogenic research framework that couples deep tectonic architecture, material sources, metallogenic timing and sedimentary paleoclimate-paleoenvironment, the formation mechanism and metallogenic model of the Naiman supergiant trona deposit can be revealed, which is of great fundamental scientific significance. Meanwhile, the research results will support exploration of trona deposits in the Songliao Basin and surrounding areas and promote the upgrading of China’s soda ash industry, thus having important strategic and practical significance.

Based on the strategy of rural revitalization and the perspective of earth sciense, combining the local demands of industrial development transformation in Naiman Banner, Inner Mongolia, this study utilizes enterprise big data obtained from the Tianyancha database, GIS-based spatial distribution analysis, and big data analytics to reveal the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of industrial development in Naiman Banner and explore the influencing factors of its spatial pattern. The results indicate that the spatial distribution of industries in Naiman Banner has gradually evolved into a belt-shaped pattern, centered around Daqintala Town and extending in a north-south orientation across the banner. Population distribution, transportation infrastructure, and land use significantly influence the industrial spatial pattern, with industries tending to cluster in urban areas near national and provincial highways, a trend more pronounced in densely populated regions. Based on the analytical results and practical industrial development conditions, this study proposes scientific recommendations for structural transformation and spatial optimization of industrial development in Naiman Banner, offering actionable insights for local policymaking.

With increasing demands for timeliness and update frequency in wind power prediction, the limitations of methods based on Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) have become increasingly evident. The development of artificial intelligence meteorological models has provided an efficient source of meteorological forecasts for wind power prediction. Selecting an offshore wind farm in Yangjiang, Guangdong as the service object, the Pangu AI meteorological model and the numerical weather prediction model CMA-GD were applied to conduct simulation calculations for a total of 17 months in 2023 and 2024. Four sets of power prediction experiments were designed, which used different meteorological data forecast sources, different power prediction methods, and a wind speed correction method, to compare and analyze the improvement of wind power prediction. The experimental results show that the Pangu model achieves accuracy comparable to or even surpassing that of numerical weather prediction models. When using the generated site power curve for power prediction, the short-term power prediction accuracy based on the Pangu model meteorological forecast exceeds that based on CMA-GD, and even in some months of 2024, the prediction performance is comparable to that of using machine learning algorithms for power prediction. According to the November 2023 experimental results, the power prediction model based on corrected Pangu model forecasts and the ResMLP algorithm achieved the best power prediction performance, with a 24-hour prediction accuracy of 0.714 and a 96-hour prediction accuracy of 0.654. Applying this model to the period from January to June 2024 yielded stable results that met the grid assessment standards. This study provides a referable solution for applying the Pangu or other artificial intelligence meteorological models in wind power prediction operations.

Dynamic changes in land use are vital for ecological balance and sustainable development. Based on the case of Naiman Banner in Tongliao City, Inner Mongolia, time-series remote sensing data were examined to monitor changes in land use and conduct spatiotemporal analysis to support the sustainable development of this region. Given the complexities of this agro-pastoral region, the seasonal characteristics of time-series satellite imagery were utilized to produce high-precision land use products. Based on which, this study analyzes the spatiotemporal changes in land use in Naiman Banner over the past 40 years and assesses the ecological impacts of various land use changes. The results indicate differentiated spatiotemporal characteristics in land use, with the northern region exhibiting trends of desertification recovery, urban expansion, and an increase in arable land, while the southern mountainous areas show a trend of returning farmland to grass and forest. Factor contribution analysis reveals that changes in agricultural land use, ecological recovery from desertification, and deceased surface water significantly affect soil moisture content in the area, underscoring the importance of water-saving agriculture, ecological restoration of sandy areas, and water resource protection for sustainable agricultural development. This study provides important data for land resource management in Naiman Banner and offers scientific evidence for sustainable development strategies in this region, facilitating the coordinated advancement of ecological environments and economic development.

Oceanic Mesoscale Eddies (ME) carry more than 90% of the kinetic energy in the upper global ocean, playing vital roles in the material and energy transport. They are highly active in the South China Sea (SCS), with complex dynamics for their generation and dissipation, which are received an increasingly attention from physical oceanographers. Through comprehensive analysis of extensively relevant literatures, it is found that the understanding of the three-dimensional structural characteristics of ME in the SCS more clear, the mechanisms of generation mainly include local wind stress, intrusion of the Kuroshio from the Luzon Strait, the westward propagation of Rossby wave in the Pacific Ocean, and a combination of multiple factors. ME’s dissipation is mainly caused by instability during their propagation or interaction with internal waves. It is shown that there is the ability to reconstruct and predict ME for those popular numerical models, data assimilation, and artificial intelligence technologies, but their accuracy still needs to be further improved. It aims to provide a systematic reference for the comprehensive understanding of ME dynamical processes and the improvement of their operational forecasting skills in the SCS. We suggest that combining dynamics theory, advanced ocean numerical models and data assimilation, big data and artificial intelligence to optimize ME simulation, is one of the key points for eddy research and forecasting in the future.

Under the backdrop of resource competition among world powers and policy adjustments in resource-rich countries, the strategic attributes and significance of copper resources have become increasingly prominent. The competition among major powers over resources has intensified, and the copper resource industry chain and supply chain are facing significant uncertainties and risks. Studying the resilience of the copper resource industry chain and supply chain trade network is of great significance for ensuring the security of copper resources and the stability of the global copper resource industry chain and supply chain. By comprehensively considering all products in the entire copper resource industry chain and supply chain, including upstream mining, midstream smelting, and downstream processing, an analysis framework for the resilience of the international trade network is constructed. Through describing the capabilities and characteristics of network nodes and structures, the evolution characteristics of the resilience of the copper resource industry chain and supply chain network are depicted from both dynamic and static dimensions. The research shows that at the node resilience level, China has a significant advantage in the upstream and midstream, but the downstream is showing a downward trend. Resource-endowed countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Chile have high resilience in the upstream and midstream due to their resource advantages, but their performance in the downstream is not outstanding. Industrial powers such as Germany and the United States have seen a decline in their upstream resilience, but their overall resilience across the entire chain is relatively prominent, and they still hold important positions in the upstream, midstream, and downstream. At the static structural resilience level, resilience in all links is showing a downward trend, and recovery capabilities are all inadequate, with stronger resistance capabilities in the upstream and downstream. At the dynamic structural resilience level, the polarization effect of the upstream and downstream networks has weakened, and their stability capabilities need to be improved. Midstream trade is increasingly concentrated on important links, leading to a decline in resistance to attacks. In the entire chain, the motivation for re-establishing trade links stems primarily from a country's existing status as a trade hub. Trade hub countries dominate the establishment of potential new links and have stronger reconstruction capabilities.

The high heterogeneity of terrestrial underlying surfaces and the complex coupling characteristics of ecohydrological processes lead to unclear multi-scale coupling evolution mechanisms of terrestrial ecohydrological processes, imperfect coupling simulation systems for multi-factor interactions, including hydrology, soil, vegetation and human activities, as well as insufficient cognition of the resource and environmental effects and derivative risks induced by the multi-scale variations in ecohydrological processes. These issues have become the core bottleneck for clarifying and solving a series of hydrological, ecological, resource, and environmental problems, and also restrict the refined management of regional water resources and the sustainable development of ecological environments.To solve the above issues, this paper breaks through the coupling and effects of typical terrestrial ecological and hydrological systems, coupling from the perspective of the multi-element coupling cycle, energy cycle, and biological process. It proposes the future research on the multi- change process of inland river basin hydrological and ecological and its water resources effects, the multi-scale change mechanism of the coupling process of hydrological and ecological in the Loess plateau, the multi-scale measurement and change mechanism of the hydrological and ecological processes in the lake basin, and the multi-scale change mechanism of the hydrological and ecological processes the Great Bay Area and its social and economic risks and the resource and ecological environment effects of the changes in the terrestrial hydrological and ecological processes. Revealing the typical terrestrial-scale coupling mechanism of inland river basins, the Loess Plateau, lake basins, the Great Bay Area and other typical terrestrial hydrological and ecological processes developing the monitoring methods of key hydrological and ecological parameters such as evapotranspiration, and developing the coupling simulation technology of terrestrial hydrological and ecological processes, elating the resource and environmental effects and its socio-economic risks of the changes in typical terrestrial hydrological and ecological processes under the background of global change, and providing a scientific basis the rational use of regional water resources, ecological environment protection and global change response.

To better understand the application status of geological science funding projects and improve the quality of project proposals and final reports, this article analyzes the application, review, and funding situation of geological science projects (Application code D02) in 2025. Over the past five years, the number of applications for key projects has fluctuated and declined, while the number of applications for general projects, Young Scientists Fund (A), Young Scientists Fund (B), and Regional Science Fund projects has been growing continuously. In particular, the number of applications for Young Scientists Fund (C) has seen a significant increase compared with 2024. There are 5 sub-disciplines where the total number of applications for general projects, Young Scientists Fund (C), and Regional Science Fund projects exceeds 400. Universities and research institutes remain the main applicants for these three types of projects. In terms of funding, the total awarded number and amount of the “General-Young Scientists (C)-Regional” projects both slightly increased compared with 2024. During the project review process, it was identified that failure to provide relevant materials as required remains the primary reason for project rejection. Additionally, a review was conducted on the project progress reports submitted in January 2025 and the conclusion reports of projects completed by the end of 2024, summarizing the major advancements and achievements made in fields such as life and environmental evolution, the composition and tectonic evolution of Earth, resources and energy, Quaternary geology, hydrogeology and engineering geology, and technical support sub-discipline.

Against the backdrop of China’s “carbon neutrality” goal and green sustainable development supporting rural revitalization, accelerating the construction of wind- and solar-dominated renewable energy facilities requires scientifically grounded development strategies. This study conducts a refined assessment of the technically exploitable potential of solar and wind power generation in Naiman Banner by integrating high-precision satellite-derived solar radiation, high-resolution wind speed data, land use, and protected area boundaries, combined with advanced photovoltaic and wind power generation models. The results indicate that Naiman Banner possesses abundant wind and solar resources. The total rooftop photovoltaic potential reaches 13.5 TWh, with a spatial pattern characterized by higher potential in the southern and northeastern regions, and lower in the west and east. The total potential of optimally tilted fixed-angle photovoltaics is estimated at 24 TWh, mainly concentrated in the northwest, central, and northeastern areas, and lower in the south. At 100 meters height, the wind power generation is 18.4 TWh, with the highest values in the west, moderate in the central-southern region, and lower in the north. At 140 meters, the wind power generation increases to 20.8 TWh, with the highest values in the western and southeastern regions, and generally high potential across most other areas. The findings of this case study provide valuable insights for optimizing the planning and siting of PV installations, fostering the co-development of solar and wind energy, and advancing the rural revitalization strategy in Naiman Banner.

The Chinese continental shelf, a region heavily influenced by human activities, has experienced significant ecological and environmental changes. Studying this area is of great scientific and practical importance for advancing oceanographic knowledge and promoting research on marine environmental protection and resource utilization. In recent years, intensified human activities have caused notable changes in the water environment, with Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) showing new characteristics and shifts in dominant species. This paper provides a systematic review of research on water environmental changes and HABs occurrences in the Chinese continental shelf, offering a comprehensive analysis of major ecological and environmental challenges and outlining prospects for future research. The findings indicate that the marine ecological environment in this region is increasingly influenced by phosphorus limitation and the roles of organic nitrogen and phosphorus, accompanied by a shift in dominant HABs species from diatoms to dinoflagellates, and, in some areas, the simultaneous occurrence of HABs and green tides. These changes are driven by both ongoing alterations in terrestrial inputs and intrinsic self-regulatory mechanisms within the marine ecosystem, reflecting the cumulative effects of long-term environmental changes. Notably, there is a significant time lag between reductions in terrestrial pollution and decreases in HABs frequency, complicating the evaluation of management effectiveness and challenging the scientific determination of ecological risk thresholds or tipping points. Despite considerable progress in understanding the evolution of water environments and risks of HABs in China, significant challenges remain, including insufficient long-term and systematic observational data, the requirement to expand the research scope, and incomplete knowledge of land-sea interaction mechanisms. Future research should focus on elucidating land-sea coupling processes, enhancing marine environmental monitoring networks, improving data processing and technological innovation, and clarifying the thresholds for nitrogen and phosphorus management while developing integrated strategies that encompass monitoring, tracing, calculation, and management. These efforts are crucial for advancing marine environmental research in the Chinese continental shelf.

Temperature and precipitation are key climatic factors regulating ecohydrological processes in arid and semi-arid regions of China. However, the impacts of their synergistic effects on soil microbial processes remain to be further clarified. Based on long-term observational data from the Naiman National Field Scientific Observation and Research Station, this study focused on meadow aeolian sandy soil in the Horqin Sandy Land to quantitatively evaluate the synergistic effects of temperature and precipitation on soil microbial biomass carbon. The results indicated that the synergistic effect of temperature and precipitation is mediated by soil moisture as a critical intermediate, which regulates the dynamics of soil microbial biomass carbon through the core pathway: “temperature-precipitation synergy—soil moisture response—soil microbial feedback”. Furthermore, a soil moisture content of 0.019 m³/m³ can serve as the critical threshold for distinguishing different types of temperature-precipitation synergistic interactions. Under the scenario of “increased temperature and increased precipitation”, rising temperatures dominate and enhance soil evaporation. Precipitation supplementation fails to offset evaporative losses, resulting in drought stress that inhibits the accumulation of microbial biomass carbon. In contrast, under the scenario of “decreased temperature and decreased precipitation”, reduced temperatures weaken evaporation, while decreased precipitation suppresses deep water infiltration—thus maintaining surface soil moisture at an optimal state and facilitating the accumulation of microbial biomass carbon. This study not only deepens the understanding of how the synergistic effects of multiple climatic factors modulate soil microbial processes in arid and semi-arid regions but also provides significant insights for elucidating soil carbon cycle processes in sandy land ecosystems.

The evaporites in the lower part of the Jiufotang Formation of Naiman Sag，Kailu Basin, were widely developed, forming the world’s second-largest trona deposits, which serve as important deep-time records of the Early Cretaceous palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment in Northeast Asia. However, the genesis of the trona deposit and its source-to-sink processes are still unclear. In order to investigate the formation processes of soda ash, we carried out a multi-scaled investigation of the sedimentary route system, involving regional “basin-mountain coupling”, core-scaled sedimentary cyclothemes and thin section-scaled analysis of mineral assemblages. And the material sources, facies distribution, key interfaces and sedimentary differentiation mechanisms of the Naiman trona deposit were explored. The results show that the Naiman trona deposit is similar to the Green River Formation in the United States, and the evaporites were precipitated in the central depression where black shales were also widely developed. Evaporite facies conform approximately to a bull’s eye pattern with a zonation of terrigenous clasts, alkaline earth carbonate, surrounding a basin centre accumulation of Na-carbonate and halite, indicating that the depositional differentiation is controlled by the solubility and geomorphic elevation of the basin. The formation of Naiman trona deposits mainly involves two processes: firstly, the Na⁺-HCO{}_{\mathrm{3}}^{-} rich brine accumulated in the lake during the humid period with large amounts of Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, HCO{}_{\mathrm{3}}^{-}, Cl^- leached from the intermediate-basic volcanic rocks around the periphery of the basin. Secondly, the lake basin was highly dried under extreme arid climate conditions, and the lake was saturated with trona-halite, which were precipitated sequentially in the center of the depression. The giant trona deposits are characterized by interbedded halite, trona, gypsum, and black shale, reflecting frequent fluctuations of the lake level and cyclicity of trona accumulation. The annual varves and Milankovitch cycle of evaporites in Naiman Sag indicate that the trona-accumulating period was about 1.2 Ma, much smaller than the depositional time of the lower part of the Jiufotang Formation (2.5 Ma). The source-to-sink depositional pattern of trona deposits in the Naiman Sag will provide a reference for the exploration and development of similar Na-carbonate evaporite deposits.

The Naiman Sag is located in the southwestern part of the Songliao Basin. It remains underexplored, and the conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation and the main controlling factors are not yet well understood. This study based on a comprehensive review of previous studies and integrates data from drilling, seismic profiles, reservoir lithology and petrophysics. It analyzes the petroleum geological characteristics, controlling factors for hydrocarbon accumulation, and resource potential of the Naiman Sag. The results indicate the primary hydrocarbon source rocks in the region are the Shahai, lower Jiufotang, and Yixian formations. These are mainly concentrated in the northern part of the sag and are generally at a low-to-mature stage (R_O<1.0%). Among them, the lower Jiufotang Formation, developed in semi-deep lake to deep lake facies, contains high-quality source rocks with high organic matter abundance (average TOC of 2.79%) and predominantly of Type I and Type II₁ kerogen. These source rocks are the primary contributors to hydrocarbons in the region. Biomarker characteristics indicate that the source rocks formed in a high-salinity, strongly reducing lacustrine environment, with mixed contributions from lower aquatic organisms and higher terrestrial plants. The hydrocarbons in the region are primarily heavy oil and wet gas, with heavy oils not undergoing significant biodegradation and mainly controlled by low maturity. The natural gas is characterized as sapropelic kerogen-derived gas in the low-to-mature stage, directly resulting from kerogen cracking. Hydrocarbon accumulation is primarily controlled by favorable source-reservoir configurations, dominant depositional facies, and advantageous lithology, demonstrating a trinity of “facies-lithology-structure” coupling. Additionally, deep fluid activities may play an important role in the accumulation process by not only promoting secondary hydrocarbon generation but also contributing to the enrichment of associated noble gases such as hydrogen and helium. Overall, the central and deeper “sweet-spot” zones of the sag, with abundant hydrocarbon supply, proximal traps, and active fluid movement, show significant exploration potential. Future studies should focus on the unconventional accumulation mechanisms under multi-factor coupling. This will deepen the understanding of the petroleum system in the Naiman Sag.

With the rapid advancement of wind and solar power generation technologies, the proportion of wind and solar energy within power systems continues to rise. However, the output of these two energy sources is directly influenced by weather conditions, exhibiting significant randomness, volatility, and intermittency. This poses severe challenges to power dispatch and the secure, stable operation of the grid. High-precision power forecasting technologies at short- and medium-term time scales are crucial for addressing these challenges and achieving efficient utilization of wind and solar power generation. This paper systematically reviews the developmental trajectory, core technologies, and latest research advancements in short- and medium-term meteorological forecasting for wind and solar energy. First, a comprehensive analysis of relevant domestic and international literature indicates that traditional wind and solar energy forecasting methods—such as numerical weather prediction techniques, statistical approaches (including time series analysis and machine learning), and hybrid/statistical post-processing methods combining both—no longer fully meet current demands. Significant improvements in forecast accuracy and reliability have been achieved through synergistic optimization in key areas: high-resolution rapid-cycle forecasting, energy-specific physical process optimization, and hybrid data assimilation method of Ensemble Kalman Filtering (EnKF) and four-dimensional variational assimilation (4D-Var). Furthermore, the introduction of next-generation dynamic frameworks and advanced artificial intelligence (AI) large models, the assimilation and fusion of multi-source data, and the application of emerging technologies like “digital twins” offer new avenues for further refining forecast outcomes. Finally, the paper analyses the challenges confronting current forecasting techniques and outlines future development directions which include but not limited to challenges posed by forecasting extreme weather events，complex terrain physical and dynamical representations, enhancing model interpretability, and subseasonal to seasonal-scale forecasting; Deep integration of artificial intelligence with physical models to develop “physical-information neural networks” by embedding physical laws; Collective probabilistic forecasting that combines traditional physical models with large AI model ensembles will become widespread; Disruptive technologies like quantum computing are poised to advance ultra-high-resolution meteorological simulations; Achieving deep coupling between forecasting technologies and scenarios such as the grid-based automatic power generation control to build closed-loop intelligent decision-making systems. This review aims to provide a technical reference for researchers and engineering technicians in the field of energy meteorology.

Lunar and Planetary Sciences, as a core supporting discipline for deep space exploration, plays a crucial role in uncovering the evolutionary laws of the solar system, understanding the essential nature of Earth's origin, and promoting interdisciplinary integration and innovation. This article presents an overview of the application and funding of National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) programs for the Lunar and Planetary Sciences Discipline, Department of Earth Sciences, in the year of 2025. Lunar and Planetary Sciences Discipline received a total of 388 proposals from 130 supporting institutions during the centralized acceptance period. In terms of research contents, approximately 70% of the proposed studies focused on the Moon and Mars, and 63.5% of the proposals exhibited a characteristic of interdisciplinary research. Furthermore, young applicants with ages from 26 to 40 formed the dominant group, constituting 72.4% of all applicants. Twenty-three projects funded from previous cycles have been concluded by the end of 2024. These projects achieved important advancements in many planetary science fields, including planetary geology, planetary space physics, and planetary atmospheres.

This paper reviews the 15-year development process of the Integrated Risk Governance Project (IRGP) under IHDP/Future Earth, summarizes its major research achievements, and provides prospects for future research directions in this field. The first five years of IRGP (2010-2014) were carried out under the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP), focusing on global integrated risk governance research. Six main research themes were included: social-ecologic system, model and modeling, entry mechanism, early warning system, case comparison, risk governance paradigms. Over the past ten years, IRGP has continued under the framework of the Future Earth (FE), jointly initiated and led by the International Science Council (ISC, formed through the merger of ICSU and ISSC) and United Nations system organizations such as UNESCO, UNEP, and UNU. Its main research directions have included: natural disaster and advanced technology risks, climate change risks in coastal regions, risks from urbanization and agriculture, financial and global systemic risks, as well as green growth and integrated risk management. Major achievements of IRGP include: the paradigm of comprehensive disaster reduction and risk defense—the consilience model, compilation of the Atlas of Natural Disasters in China, compilation of the World Atlas of Natural Disasters, comprehensive rapid assessment studies of global compound chain disasters and mega-disaster risks, construction of the global environmental risk governance paradigm, and systematic analyses of Earth environmental risk prevention and control. Comparing IRGP’s 15-year research progress with the trends of international political, economic, social, environmental, and technological development, future integrated risk governance research should address systemic risks of the Earth and the world, focusing on the trinity of tackling global climate change, reducing disaster risks, and achieving sustainable development. It is advisable to promptly establish an international science programme for integrated disaster risk prevention based on the successful experience and existing work of IRGP, as it is highly essential for ensuring the security and sustainable development of the community with a shared future for mankind.

Currently, the increasingly severe climate change, frequent occurrence of extreme weather events, growing pressure on food security, and the accelerated development of smart agriculture have posed severe challenges to the development of agricultural meteorology. Systems science provides solutions for agricultural meteorology to address these challenges, and developing systematic agricultural meteorology is an urgent need to promote the development of agricultural meteorology. Based on the systematic characteristics of the research object of agricultural meteorology, this article proposes the connotation and theoretical framework of systematic agricultural meteorology and looks forward to the research prospects. The results show that systematic agricultural meteorology is a science that uses system analysis methods to study the interaction mechanisms, dynamic evolution laws, and impacts and optimization paths of various elements within the agricultural meteorological system. It focuses on the interrelationships among various elements in the agricultural meteorological system and emphasizes the application of cybernetics, computer technology, and mathematical theories. Through systematic observation, analysis, description, simulation, and optimization, it builds agricultural meteorological models to achieve state expression, dynamic simulation, and regulatory improvement of the agricultural meteorological system, promoting the coordinated development of the agricultural meteorological system. The key scientific issues of systematic agricultural meteorology include multi-source data scale conversion, multi-factor synergy mechanisms, and multi-process coupling model construction. The research goal is to optimize the structure of the agricultural meteorological system and collaboratively achieve high-yield, high-quality, high-efficiency, and sustainable agricultural production. Systematic agricultural meteorology is a new form and new engine for the development of agricultural meteorology. Through theoretical innovation, technology integration, and service reconfiguration, it promotes the transformation of agricultural production from “relying on nature” to the intelligent paradigm of “knowing nature and working accordingly”, realizing the paradigm shift from empirical judgment to intelligent decision-making, and providing scientific support for addressing the challenges of food security under climate change and developing new quality productive forces in agricultural meteorology.

Accurate retrieval of snow depth from passive microwave observations remains a major challenge because of the pronounced nonlinearity between microwave brightness temperature and snow physical properties, which is further modulated by complex terrain and the temporal evolution of snowpacks. Conventional retrieval approaches, including physically based radiative transfer models, are often constrained by high computational costs and strong sensitivity to uncertain input parameters, resulting in degraded performance under heterogeneous snow conditions and across different snow climate regimes. To overcome these limitations, this study develops a passive microwave snow depth retrieval model that integrates Wavelet transform with a Residual Convolutional Neural Network (Wavelet-ResNet-CNN) to better represent multi-scale features and complex nonlinear relationships. Specifically, the wavelet transform is applied to multi-frequency brightness temperature observations to extract scale-dependent information, allowing the model to capture both large-scale snow depth variability and localized perturbations associated with rapid snow accumulation and melt processes. The resulting multi-scale features are then ingested into a residual convolutional neural network, in which residual connections facilitate deep feature propagation and enhance nonlinear fitting capability while mitigating performance degradation in deep architectures. The proposed model is evaluated using representative ground-based stations spanning different snow climate classes in the Northern Hemisphere to assess its applicability under diverse snow conditions at the site scale. Model performance is quantified using multiple statistical metrics, including Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), correlation coefficient (R), mean bias, and Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), and is benchmarked against conventional convolutional neural network and residual convolutional neural network models. The results show that the Wavelet-ResNet-CNN achieves an RMSE of 0.23 m, an R of 0.93, a mean bias of 0.01 m, and an NSE of 0.86, indicating consistent improvements over the reference deep learning models across all evaluation metrics. Additional analyses demonstrate that the proposed model outperforms traditional deep learning approaches across a wide range of snow depths, with particularly notable gains during periods of deep snow accumulation and rapid snow depth changes. Furthermore, compared with existing snow depth retrieval products, the model exhibits enhanced temporal responsiveness and improved spatial transferability across different snow climate types, highlighting its potential for robust passive microwave snow depth monitoring in regions with diverse snow regimes.

Accurately assessing the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation Net Primary Productivity (NPP) in sandy ecosystems and quantifying the roles of climate change and human activities are crucial for elucidating the impacts of environmental change on the carbon pool in these ecosystems and for developing strategies to enhance carbon sinks. Using MOD17A3HGF data products, we systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal patterns of vegetation NPP and their driving mechanisms in the Horqin region from 2001 to 2023, employing trend analysis, stability analysis, partial correlation analysis, and partial derivatives. The results indicated that: ① From 2001 to 2023, the vegetation net primary productivity in the Horqin region exhibited a spatial pattern of being higher in the northwest and southeast and lower in the central region, with a significant increase at a rate of 4.78 g C/(m²⋅a). An impressive 89.3% of the region experienced significant recovery, with 72.6% maintaining stable condition. The recovery rate of net primary productivity was stronger in fixed sands than that in mobile sands. ② A warming and humidification trend characterized the climatic conditions in the Horqin region. The magnitude of climate changes was generally higher in desertified areas than in non-desertified ones. ③ Vegetation net primary productivity showed positive correlations with annual precipitation, and annual mean temperature, but was negatively correlated with annual mean solar radiation, with precipitation dominating the variation in vegetation net primary productivity. ④ In vegetation restoration areas, regions where net primary productivity changes were jointly driven by climate change and human activities, and those primarily driven by human activity accounted for 82.2% and 16.6%, respectively. However, in areas of vegetation degradation, the dominant influence of human activity remains non-negligible. Net primary productivity in mobile sand areas was predominantly influenced by climate change, whereas in fixed sand areas, it was substantially affected by anthropogenic activities. Our findings robustly endorse the following management strategies that facilitate the natural restoration of mobile sands by adapting to the prevailing trends of climate warming and humidification and enhancing the carbon sequestration and carbon sink capacity of sands through the regulation of agricultural practices. These insights provide a scientific foundation for targeted implementation of desertification control and ecological restoration efforts in the Horqin region.

The Tibetan Plateau (TP), the most massive elevated landform in the Northern Hemisphere, serves as a powerful atmospheric heat source that anchors the Asian monsoon system and profoundly influences East Asian climate patterns. Although extensive research has yielded fruitful results regarding the TP’s thermal anomalies and their climatic effects, a systematic review of its dynamic mechanisms in driving multi-scale precipitation and extreme events over the Middle and Lower reaches of the Yangtze River (MLYR) is still lacking. Centered on the “thermal forcing-circulation response-precipitation processes” framework, this paper systematically reviews the mechanisms by which the TP’s atmospheric heat source affects precipitation in the MLYR. The review first addresses methods for quantifying the TP heat source, highlighting their uncertainties and spatiotemporal characteristics. We then comprehensively elucidate the core physical mechanisms through which the TP heat influences key atmospheric circulation systems via two pathways: “background state modulation” and “direct thermal forcing.” At upper levels, the TP’s thermal forcing governs the intensity and position of the South Asian High (SAH) and the seasonal migration of the subtropical westerly jet. At mid-levels, it acts as a primary source of Rossby wave trains that remotely influence the Western Pacific Subtropical High (WPSH). At lower levels, the “Sensible Heat-driven Air Pump” (SHAP) effect reshapes the monsoonal flow and establishes critical water vapor transport channels. Subsequently, the review synthesizes how these multi-level circulation adjustments translate into specific precipitation patterns over the MLYR. Two distinct configurations for persistent heavy rainfall are identified: the PSAH type, characterized by robust vertical coupling between an eastward-extended SAH and a westward-extended WPSH sustained by the rainfall-related ascent anomaly, and the NSAH type, which features a westward-extended WPSH but with a westward-retreated SAH. Furthermore, we introduce a novel framework of “scenario-dependent roles” to describe the TP’s function in extreme events. Specifically, it acts as a “primary driver” under weak external forcing (e.g., neutral ENSO), a “synergistic amplifier” when phase-locked with favorable oceanic conditions, or a “passive modulator” when strong external forcings like La Niña dominate. Our synthesis reveals that the TP’s thermal forcing is not an isolated, static driver, but rather exhibits a complex synergistic interaction with large-scale background states, such as tropical sea surface temperatures. The combination of these multiple forcing factors ultimately determines the triggering and amplification of extreme precipitation events. Finally, future research priorities are outlined to bridge existing knowledge gaps. These include advancing from analyzing the heat source’s total intensity to disentangling the differential climatic impacts of its vertical profile; moving beyond correlation to quantitative attribution of the TP’s role in specific extreme events; and overcoming data scarcity by developing a benchmark heat source dataset through the fusion of multi-source data. Addressing these challenges is crucial for advancing scientific understanding and enhancing the predictive capability for precipitation variability and extremes in the MLYR.

This paper introduces the review process for the scientific Fund of Geophysics and Space physics Discipline of the Earth Science Department of the National Natural Science Foundation of China in 2025. Overall, the discipline demonstrates steady growth, with the number of applications increasing by 107 compared to 2024. The applications for the Young Scientists Fund (A and B) saw an increase exceeding 20.0%. The distribution of applications across subfields remained similar to previous years: Solid Geophysics accounted for 31.32%, Geodesy and Applied Geophysics for 26.84% and 26.77% respectively, Space Physics for 11.55%, and Experimental and Instrumentation Physics for 3.52%. Applicants for general projects, Young Scientists Fund (C) projects, and Fund for Less Developed Regions were predominantly aged 31~40, constituting 61.63% of the total. In addition, 417 projects had been completed in 2024, achieving significant progress across multiple subfields.

In the context of climate change, glacier surges and the associated hazards are occurring with increasing frequency. Due to the difficulties in subglacial monitoring, multiple interpretations remain regarding the control mechanisms of glacier surges. The enthalpy-balance model is a recently proposed, generalized framework that integrates glacier mass balance, thermodynamics, and subglacial hydrology, and it can account for surging processes across a wide range of glacier types. We integrate previously published datasets with additional surface velocity and surface elevation data of the South Rimo Glacier (SRG) derived from remote-sensing satellite observations. On this basis, glacier basal sliding velocities and stress variations are calculated. Furthermore, an enthalpy balance model is employed to estimate glacier enthalpy production during different periods. Using these datasets and methods, we systematically analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics and key processes of SRG before and after its surge events from 2000 to 2024. The results indicate that: ① The 2018-2020 surge of SRG involved substantial water participation and was likely triggered by thermally controlled basal meltwater generation and the infiltration of surface meltwater into the glacier bed, which altered subglacial water pressure and induced rapid glacier motion; ② During the surge, the dominant enthalpy source in SRG was frictional heat generated by basal sliding. The mean annual enthalpy production attributable to frictional heating was approximately 1.0 W/m², 3.2 W/m², and 0.5 W/m² during the pre-surge, surge, and post-surge stages, respectively, with the highest mean annual value occurring in 2019 (~6.2 W/m²). In contrast, enthalpy losses were primarily associated with the discharge of subglacial basal meltwater; ③ The terminus position reached during this surge did not extend as far as that of the previous surge (1989-1999), suggesting that the intensity of the current surge was weaker than that of the last event; ④ The enthalpy balance model effectively explains the acceleration and deceleration phases of glacier surging. The surging behavior of the South Rimo Glacier, eastern Karakoram, is governed by a coupled hydro-thermal mechanism, but as to when the surge reaches the critical threshold to start and when it stops, detailed subglacial hydrological observation data are needed for analysis.

Drought stress affects plant stomatal behavior through both soil and atmospheric pathways. Stomatal conductance is an essential physiological parameter for plant adaptation to drought stress, regulated by both internal and external environmental factors. This review synthesizes findings from domestic and international studies on the development and application of stomatal conductance models under drought stress scenarios, including Jarvis-type empirical models, Ball-Berry-type semi-empirical models, and two types of mechanistic models based on stomatal hydraulic theory and optimization theory. The respective advantages and limitations of each model type are analyzed. Despite being straightforward and practical, empirical and semi-empirical models of stomatal conductance have a weak theoretical foundation and cannot adequately explain the biophysical mechanisms. In contrast, mechanistic models have greater biophysical explanatory power and adaptability. Despite their complexity, they can clarify the inherent patterns of stomatal behavior under drought stress. This makes them a universal predictive framework for simulating stomatal conductance in plants under complex drought conditions. Considering the numerous obstacles to the creation of mechanistic models of stomatal conductance, more research in this area is crucial. In addition, the development of emerging technologies such as machine learning and stable isotopes has provided new avenues for model improvement, which have not only broadened the theoretical boundaries of the models but have also improved the simulation ability of stomatal conductance in plants under drought stress. We conclude by outlining our prognosis and recommendations for future research directions, emphasizing the necessity of incorporating cutting-edge technology and expanding mechanistic knowledge to create robust and high-precision mechanistic stomatal conductance models. This study will offer a stronger theoretical foundation and methodological point of reference for a more thorough understanding of how to optimize transpiration, photosynthesis, and stomatal regulation in drought-stressed plants.

Plant community stability is the central ecological issue that underpins the structural integrity, functional continuity, and service sustainability of steppe ecosystems. Its influencing mechanisms have become a frontier focus in ecological and botanical research amid accelerating global climate change and intensifying anthropogenic activities. Building upon previous research, this review synthesizes current understanding of the theoretical connotation and characterization parameters of stability, the diversity-stability relationship, and the influencing mechanisms of plant community stability in steppe ecosystems. It further identifies critical knowledge gaps and provides an outlook on potential research priorities and development directions. Studies have shown that under the impacts of climate change and anthropogenic activities, the stability of plant communities in steppe ecosystems is collectively regulated by multiple biotic mechanisms—such as overyielding effects (via selection and complementarity), insurance effects, asynchrony, compensation effects, portfolio effects, and statistical averaging effects—along with abiotic factors such as soil nutrient availability. These mechanisms exhibit distinct ecosystem type specificity and significant spatio-temporal scale dependence. Future research needs to establish a systematic paradigm of “multiple disturbance factors-multiple regulatory processes-multiple spatio-temporal scales and organizational dimensions” to further unravel the intrinsic linkages between the structure, function, and stability of steppe ecosystems under global change, aiming to provide a reference for the sustainable development and adaptive management practices of steppe ecosystems.

Surface ozone (O₃) and terrestrial vegetation has profound and complex interactions that exert strong influences on atmospheric chemistry, ecosystem productivity, and regional climate. As a phytotoxic oxidant, O₃ enters plant tissues through stomata, triggering oxidative stress and impairing photosynthetic functions. These physiological disruptions further reduce crop yields and ecosystem productivity, posing substantial threats to global food security and terrestrial carbon sink. Current syntheses estimate that present-day O₃ pollution reduces global land sink by 1.5%~5%, with hotspots in eastern China and eastern U.S. Vegetation is not merely a passive recipient of O₃ stress; rather, it actively modulates surface O₃ concentrations through dual roles as both a sink and a source. On the one hand, stomatal uptake represents a major pathway for O₃ dry deposition, accounting for approximately 45% of global O₃ removal. On the other hand, vegetation emits Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOCs), such as isoprene and monoterpenes, which act as key precursors for O₃ formation under sunlight. Recent modeling studies suggest that BVOCs contribute more than 10% to summertime O₃ concentrations in polluted regions such as China and U.S. A critical feedback arises from O₃-vegetation coupling: elevated O₃ induces stomatal closure as a protective response, which reduces the stomatal uptake of O₃, weakens dry deposition, and ultimately enhances ambient O₃ levels. In addition, O₃-induced stomatal closure suppresses transpiration, altering surface energy partitioning by reducing latent heat flux and increasing sensible heat flux. These biophysical responses promote regional warming and drying, with consequent impacts on regional climate and hydrology, including temperature, humidity, precipitation, and runoff. For example, O₃-vegetation interactions have been shown to increase summer surface temperatures by 0.2~0.8 K and reduce relative humidity by 3%~9% in eastern China. Despite progress in experimental and modeling approaches, substantial uncertainties persist. These include limitations of controlled-exposure experiments, inconsistencies in O₃ damage parameterizations, and incomplete understanding of interactions between O₃ stress and co-occurring drivers such as elevated CO₂, nitrogen deposition, and extreme climate events. Future research should prioritize integrated multi-scale observational networks, multifactor manipulative experiments, and advanced Earth system models that tightly couple atmospheric chemistry with dynamic vegetation processes. Improved quantification of the O₃-vegetation-climate interaction is essential for developing coordinated strategies that jointly address air quality improvement and climate change adaptation.

Under the background of global warming, Meiyu precipitation over the Yangtze River basin has increasingly deviated from its traditional characteristics of persistent light rainfall, exhibiting pronounced dual extremes of heavy rainfall and dry heat. Such complex changes are difficult to accurately characterize using a single variable. To comprehensively describe the evolving features of Meiyu, this study employs the Deviation Degree of Misty Rain (D2MR), a multidimensional index developed based on daily station observations, to characterize Meiyu variability from multiple perspectives, and its sub-indices are further used to identify the dominant Meiyu type in each year. Meanwhile, based on ERA5 reanalysis data and datasets from the Hadley Centre, physically meaningful potential predictors are systematically analyzed, and key preceding factors influencing D2MR and its sub-indices are identified. Prediction models are then constructed using the interannual increment approach. The results indicate that the proposed models exhibit significant and stable predictive performance for the Meiyu extremeness index and its sub-indices, with correlation coefficients exceeding 0.72. The models successfully capture the interannual variability and the significant upward trend of D2MR during 1963—2025, and effectively reproduce the characteristics of Meiyu in extreme years, accurately reflecting the increasing extremeness of Meiyu in recent decades. In particular, the models independently predict the occurrences of heavy-rainfall-dominated Meiyu in 2020 and 2024, dry-heat-dominated Meiyu in 2022 and 2025, and the alternating heat-rainfall Meiyu characteristics in 2023. As the frequency of extreme Meiyu events continues to increase, exerting greater socio-economic impacts across the Yangtze River Basin, the characterization and prediction of Meiyu extremity provide essential scientific support for disaster prevention, agricultural planning, and enhance our understanding of regional climate variability.

Aerosols are key factors influencing the energy balance of the Earth-atmosphere system and atmospheric environmental changes. High-precision inversion of their optical parameters has long been a topic of interest in atmospheric environmental remote sensing. Passive remote sensing of aerosol optics primarily utilizes their scattering effects in the visible/near-infrared wavelength bands. However, this approach typically relies on solar scattered radiation as the radiation source, rendering it inapplicable at night and during high-latitude winters (polar nights). Infrared hyperspectral remote sensing technology can resolve the unique spectral absorption and scattering fingerprint characteristics of aerosols, serving as another means to achieve aerosol remote sensing and providing a powerful supplement to traditional visible/near-infrared inversion techniques. This paper systematically elaborates on the fundamental principles of infrared hyperspectral inversion for aerosol microphysical parameters, focusing on key technologies such as physical mechanisms and detection instruments, radiative transfer models, and inversion algorithms. Particular emphasis is placed on discussing the key parameters of existing hyperspectral radiometers, the characteristics of hyperspectral forward radiative transfer models, and the advantages and disadvantages of different inversion methods. Based on this, the paper further outlines future research directions, proposing a focus on developing high-precision, high-efficiency forward radiative transfer models, utilizing the rich information within hyperspectral data to improve inversion algorithms, and actively advancing multi-platform collaborative detection technologies.