The value realization of ecological products is not only the practice of the concept of “green mountains and clear waters are gold and silver mountains”, but also an important channel to solve the contradiction between China’s social and economic development and ecological environmental protection, which is of great significance to comprehensively promote China’s economic green transformation. Through a systematic review of the existing scholars’ research on the realization of the value of ecological products, it is shown that: \mathrm{①} The number of studies related to ecological products has increased significantly, and the research content has become more in-depth, which effectively promotes the development of interdisciplinary integration. \mathrm{②} The research content involves the concept discrimination, connotation, and extension of ecological products, the accounting method of ecological product value, the path and mode of ecological product value realization, the practical exploration and typical case analysis of ecological product value realization, and the construction of an institutional guarantee of value realization, etc. This suggests that there may be difficulties in the process of realizing the value of ecological products and ensuring the efficient transformation of the value of ecological products remains a challenge for future research. Through sorting theoretical research and the summary and analysis of typical practice exploration cases, it is expected to provide certain references for the transformation from “clear waters and green mountains” to “gold and silver mountains”.

Hydrological and water resource monitoring are pivotal components of Earth observation systems, crucial for supporting the high-quality development of water conservancy in the modern era, fulfilling the requirements of “three water” co-governance, and implementing the “sixteen words” water-control strategy. Satellite remote sensing offers a scalable, rapid, and high-precision data acquisition pathway. Nonetheless, challenges persist in the application of existing satellite remote sensing in hydrology and water resources, including difficulties in achieving multi-satellite synchronous observation, limited emergency response capability, and susceptibility to adverse weather conditions. In December 2022, NASA launched the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite, the first satellite in the world designed to observe global land and ocean water resources through multisensor collaboration. This groundbreaking satellite greatly improves the spatial and temporal resolution and accuracy of hydrology and water resource monitoring. This study systematically reviews the development status, applications, and technical challenges of hydrological and water resource monitoring satellites. It also analyzes the satellite parameters, scientific tasks, algorithm flow, and application products of SWOT, providing a valuable reference for future satellite design planning and key data processing technologies, especially in China.

Rivers connect the terrestrial landscape and oceans and are considered “bioreactors” of carbon. Understanding the carbon cycling processes in rivers and constructing numerical models for riverine carbon cycling is imperative to estimate regional and global carbon budgets. The summary and discussion of the development and application of riverine carbon cycling models remains inadequate. This study reviewed the mechanisms and models of riverine carbon cycling based on a comprehensive literature review. First, we briefly overview the critical processes in migrating and transforming various carbon components, including particulate organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon, and dissolved organic carbon. Riverine carbon cycling models are classified into two types: statistical and process-based. The representative models’ simulation methods, applications, advantages, and disadvantages were compared. Based on statistical or machine learning methods, empirical statistical models establish the relationship between the riverine carbon flux and environmental factors. This type of model is simple but has poor extrapolation and universality. Process-based models are based on land surface or hydrological models coupled with river carbon cycling-related biogeochemical processes. This model simulates and predicts variations in different riverine carbon fluxes and is more reliable but complicated. Such models typically focus on different scientific problems, and the representations of riverine carbon cycling-related processes differ among these models. Simulation research on riverine carbon cycling is still in its early stages; however, many shortcomings remain. For example, the representations of terrestrial and aquatic carbon cycling and human activities in existing riverine carbon cycling models are insufficient; thus, they cannot accurately simulate and predict long-term changes in riverine carbon cycling. In the future, it will be necessary to strengthen observations of river carbon cycling processes and improve our understanding of terrestrial and aquatic carbon cycling to represent the mechanisms and processes in the model. This will improve the accuracy of riverine carbon cycling simulations and provide a scientific basis for China to achieve its double-carbon goals.

The Yangtze River is the largest river system in Asia, and its formation and evolution are of great significance for understanding the topography, climate change, biological evolution, and material cycles of East Asia. The Three Gorges lie in the central Yangtze Block, and its formation connects the drainage in the Sichuan Basin and the Jianghan Basin; therefore, it is regarded as one of the most critical events in the history of the Yangtze River. However, the debate over how and when the Three Gorges were formed has been ongoing for over a century. This study reviews the century-long debate, especially regarding the formation mechanism and age of the Three Gorges, to clarify the formation of the Yangtze Three Gorges. A comparison highlighted a conflict between the erosion time of the Three Gorges and the provenance analysis in the downstream basin, stemming from limitations in research ideas, objects, and methods. Determining the formation time of the Three Gorges necessitates a comprehensive approach that integrates gorge erosion and provenance analysis in the Jianghan Basin. Methods such as monazite fission track, cosmogenic nuclide dating, and geochemical analysis of single-grain minerals offer precise constraints on gorge erosion and aid in establishing a source-sink system between the Jianghan Basin and Sichuan Basin. Drawing on the principles of Earth system science and source-sink systems, this study proposes an analysis of tectonics, landforms, and climatic evolution to understand the evolution of large drainage systems such as the Yangtze River. In particular, a comprehensive analysis of the geochemical characteristics and exhumation histories of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, basin development, and geochemical characteristics of detritus minerals is required to investigate the evolutionary processes of large rivers such as the Yangtze River.

The global Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM) is a critical component of Earth system modeling and plays an essential role in climate projections and marine environmental forecasting. Herein, the history of global OGCM models is systematically reviewed and significant scientific and recent technological advancements are summarized. This review covers three topics involving the core technology of OGCMs: the dynamical core, physics or physical parameterization, and soft-hardware configuration. In the dynamic core, the latest developments in horizontal discretization methods, vertical coordinate schemes, and multi-resolution strategies are explored. Regarding physics, the focus has been on the progress of mesoscale, sub-mesoscale, and boundary-layer mixing parameterizations. In the soft-hardware configuration section, the current status and prospects for the application of heterogeneous computing architectures and artificial intelligence technology in global OGCMs are discussed. The advancement of the LASG/IAP Climate System Ocean Model, a fully autonomous Chinese global OGCM, is also highlighted. Based on key trends and novel ideas in the field of global OGCMs, suggestions are provided for Chinese researchers and relevant policymakers to comprehensively advance R&D strategies and long-term planning for fully autonomous global OGCMs.

The acceleration of urbanization and population agglomeration intensifies the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect and causes Heat Waves (HWs). The superimposed effects of the two seriously affect urban development and resident health. A few studies believe that HWs and UHI intensity have the characteristics of synergistic enhancement, but there are still large differences in the superimposed effects of HW-UHI. This article comprehensively reviews and summarizes domestic and foreign research on the differences in the synergy between HWs and UHI and explores the formation mechanism of urban high temperatures from the aspects of climate background, local circulation, and urban morphology. Under different climatic backgrounds and local circulation conditions, the synergistic effects of the HW-UHI show significant spatiotemporal differences, particularly the regulatory role of local circulation, which cannot be ignored. The Local Climate Zone (LCZs) classification proposed in the past decade has achieved some results in research on the synergy between HWs and UHI; however, it is necessary to further explore their response characteristics from the three-dimensional morphology of the city. Currently, there is no unified standard definition for HWs, which brings uncertainty to an in-depth understanding of HW-UHI interactions. There is a need to comprehensively understand the spatiotemporal differences in excessive urban warming caused by HW and UHI and their formation mechanisms and regulating factors to provide more detailed guidance and theoretical support for high-temperature monitoring and improvement of the urban living environment.

In 2015, the “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” (2030 ASD), adopted by the United Nations, set 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Scholars worldwide have conducted continuous research on the monitoring and evaluation of SDGs. Data deficiency and inadequate index monitoring abilities are considered vital restrictions in the regular monitoring and evaluation of SDGs. The application of Multisource Data to the monitoring and evaluation of SDGs can effectively address these deficiencies. Research progress on SDGs based on Multisource Data can be categorized into three types: the first type focuses on the basic theory and method system of SDG monitoring and evaluation based on Multisource Data; The second type conducts SDG monitoring and evaluation case studies based on Multisource Data; The third type focuses on strengthening the primary capacity building related to Multisource Data. The application of multisource data can strengthen the evaluation of natural ecosystems, identify critical areas, analyze the interaction between humans and nature, effectively compensate for the lack of data and other deficiencies, and improve the timeliness and spatial and temporal resolution of indicator data, which can significantly enrich the evaluation index system of the SDGs. This study proposes to strengthen the application of Multisource Data in the study of SDGs from four aspects: to expand the application of Multisource Data in the SDGs, promote interdisciplinary and comprehensive research, pilot the application of Multisource Data in the national innovation-driven demonstration zone for implementing the UN's 2030 ASD, and strengthen the primary capacity building of Multisource Data.

This paper summarizes recent progress in the observation, mechanism, and modeling of land-atmosphere interactions, and demonstrates that existing observational studies have not considered the effects of changes in terrestrial ecophysiology and the atmospheric boundary layer on land-atmosphere fluxes. Consequently, they restrict the parameterization of land surface processes, parameter inversion from satellite remote sensing, and the operational application of the land surface process model. To gain a comprehensive understanding of land-atmosphere interactions and the development of land surface process models, studies on the effects of changes in terrestrial ecophysiology and atmospheric boundary layers on land-atmosphere interactions and the operational application of land-surface process models need to be emphasized in the future. The main tasks to be considered include: \mathrm{①} three-dimensional observation of the land-atmosphere interactions across the boundary layer, \mathrm{②} application of multi-source data in the land-atmosphere interactions across the boundary layer, and \mathrm{③} development and operational application of land surface process models.

Warm clouds are predominant cloud types that form precipitation as well as the important objects for weather modification operations. Mechanistic research, seeding estimation, and effect evaluation based on cloud seeding models provide a key basis and scientific guidance for weather modification operations. In numerical models for warm cloud seeding over the past half-century, this study systematically and respectively introduces and compares the development progress of various hygroscopic seeding models based on Bulk, Bin, Particle-based Lagrangian and Hybrid microphysics schemes. A comprehensive examination was provided for the application of a series of models, focusing on salt powders and flares in artificial precipitation enhancement, defogging, precipitation reduction, actual seeding effect evaluation, and mechanism research. It further summarizes the current scientific consensus and existing problems and finally looks forward to the key directions of future scientific research. This will have important guiding significance for the in-depth development of warm cloud seeding numerical models, the study of precipitation enhancement mechanisms, and the application of weather modification operations.

To investigate the spatiotemporal patterns and agglomeration characteristics of carbon emissions in the Pearl River Basin, we constructed a carbon emission estimation model by coupling multi-source data. The spatiotemporal dynamics and spatial correlation characteristics of urban carbon emissions were explored using exploratory spatiotemporal data analysis and modified gravity modeling. The findings indicate that the total carbon emissions in the Pearl River Basin increased from 312.67 million tons to 336.54 million tons. Dongguan, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou consistently stood out as cities with the highest carbon emissions. On the grid scale, the high-value carbon emission agglomeration expands towards the periphery, with the Pearl River Delta region serving as the core, whereas the high-value carbon emission area in the middle and upper reaches is characterized by a point-like distribution. Carbon emissions in the Pearl River Basin show a positive spatial correlation, although there is a decreasing trend in the spatial interaction effect. Furthermore, there is a positive synergistic trend among neighboring cities in terms of carbon emissions. The average linkage intensity of urban carbon emissions increases from 5.93 to 18.97, indicating strengthened connectivity among cities. The carbon emissions network structure shows a trend towards centralization. This method incorporates carbon sources and sinks into the calculation process, has potential practical value, and can support the development of a carbon reduction strategy.

Since the inception of the (U-Th)/He thermochronometer at the turn of the last century, it has assumed an increasingly pivotal role in geology and related disciplines, notably in the dating of apatite and zircon. However, the occurrence of apatite and zircon is relatively restricted in nature, significantly constraining the advancement and application of (U-Th)/He dating. Through ongoing, comprehensive investigations into He diffusion kinetics and advancements in analytical technology, alongside apatite and zircon, other minerals (U-Th)/He thermochronologies have also made significant strides, progressively refining and broadening their applications, thereby opening new avenues for the (U-Th)/He thermochronometer. Moreover, different minerals record distinct geological information; hence, employing (U-Th)/He dating across multiple minerals enhances our comprehension of geological processes. This paper provides a concise overview of the progress in (U-Th)/He dating of hematite, goethite, magnetite, carbonate minerals, conodont, fluorite, perovskite, spinel, rutile, and garnet, with a focus on the advanced research in hematite, goethite, magnetite, carbonate minerals, and conodont (U-Th)/He dating, which are relatively mature. Presently, these novel methodologies have found applications in diverse fields such as ore deposits, sedimentology, tectonic geology, geodynamics, and environmental science, particularly in determining mineralization age, reconstructing paleoenvironments and paleoclimates, elucidating processes of oceanic crust alteration, subduction, and exhumation, understanding the functioning of hydrothermal systems, investigating fault deformation, and conducting paleoseismic research, wherein they are poised to play a pivotal role. However, several challenges persist, including multiple diffusion domains, the impact of radiation damage and chemical composition on helium diffusion, loss of parent isotopes during heating and degassing, and open behavior within the (U-Th)/He system, often resulting in dispersed thermochronological (U-Th)/He dates. Thus, further investigations into He diffusion behavior in these minerals, enhancements in experimental methodologies, and improvements in instrument accuracy are imperative to ensure the precision of (U-Th)/He data, thereby furnishing a more dependable framework for understanding geological processes.

Sea-Level Rise (SLR) directly changes the hydrology and salinity of estuarine tidal wetlands and is one of the primary drivers of global change that significantly impacts ecosystem processes. Herein, various methodologies and experimental facilities (marsh organs, weirs, and flow-through mesocosms) for manipulating SLR are systematically reviewed. This study provides a comprehensive summary of the effects and mechanisms associated with SLR regarding the fluxes and production rates of CH₄ and CO₂, and the pathways and rates of soil organic carbon mineralization from the perspectives of SLR-saltwater intrusion and inundation increase. Saltwater intrusion due to SLR notably decreases CH₄ production rates and fluxes. It induces a shift in the pathways of soil organic carbon mineralization, transitioning from CH₄ production to microbial SO {}_{\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}-} reduction in tidal freshwater marshes. The main mechanism reducing saltwater intrusion-induced CH₄ flux is the increased presence of the electron acceptor SO {}_{\mathrm{4}}^{\mathrm{2}-} , which hinders soil CH₄ production. The impact of SLR through saltwater intrusion on CO₂ emissions in tidal freshwater marshes exhibits distinct uncertainty. Owing to the inherent challenges in experimentally manipulating SLR in situ, few reports concerning the effects of SLR-related inundation on CH₄ and CO₂ fluxes and production rates exist. However, some studies have suggested that an increase in inundation height leads to a reduction in CO₂ emissions. Additionally, this study consolidates information surrounding electron acceptors and microbial mechanisms associated with SLR that influence the pathways and rates of soil organic carbon mineralization in coastal tidal wetlands. Finally, this study outlines the specific domains that warrant further exploration in future research on the impact of SLR on the production and emission of carbon greenhouse gases in estuarine tidal marshes.

The island arc and oceanic plateau models of a mantle plume are two popular models for the origin of the crust. In contrast to the island arc model, the oceanic plateau model can account for most of the features of the Archean crust but meets the fundamental challenge of explaining the water-rich features of the magma source for the Archean crust. The recent water-induced mantle overturn model accounts for not only water-rich features but also several puzzling phenomena in the Archean. The whole-mantle Magma Ocean (MO) separated into outer and basal MO because the crystallized mantle floated in the middle mantle. The water-induced mantle overturn model shows that with crystallization, basal MO became increasingly enriched in water because lower-mantle minerals can only contain a limited amount of water. Water reduced the density of basal MO. The basal MO eventually became less dense than the overlying solid mantle and became gravitationally unstable because of water enrichment. The triggered mantle overturned transport a large amount of water to the shallow part of the Earth and resulted in large pulses of crust and thick subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) generation. Therefore, the Archean crust was the result of the evolution of the basal MO. Once the mantle overturned from the basal MO, Archean-type crust no longer formed. Thus, the water-induced mantle overturn model can account for global change at the end of the Archean and other puzzling phenomena. For example, why were Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) and thick SCLM rare in the Hadean, why does the source of Archean basalts remain the primitive mantle from ca 4.0 to 2.5 Ga, and why does only Earth have continental crust?

The recently published report “Earth System Science in China: The Development Strategy for 2035” identified three major areas for potential research breakthroughs: \mathrm{①} Revisiting the marine carbon pump, \mathrm{②} Hydrological cycle and orbital forcing, and \mathrm{③} Ocean-Continent connection between the Pacific and Asia. The strategy research group was jointly established in 2019 by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Over the course of three years, the group organized 14 thematic workshops, involving over 500 experts from various research fields. This study provides a brief overview of these three major research areas.

Satellite-based fast inversion for nitrogen oxides (NO _x =NO+NO₂) emissions at low computational costs and high resolutions (≤5 km or finer) can provide timely, detailed data to support targeted pollution control. To date, a variety of low-cost fast inversion methods have been developed, such as the Exponentially Modified Gaussian (EMG), Divergence (DIV), and the PHLET (Peking University High-resolution Lifetime-Emission-Transport) models. However, quantitative comparisons of these methods and their emission results are lacking. This study compares the above three inversion methods for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region during the summer of 2019. We found that the EMG model, which was designed for point source emission inversion, performs poorly in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei due to dense emission sources even within each city. The DIV considers the horizontal transport of NO _x with a predetermined (fixed) lifetime and can quickly identify the locations of emission sources; however, it tends to underestimate the emission amounts and even leads to negative emissions in many places. PHLET algorithm considers the horizontal transport of NO₂, the nonlinear relationship between local NO₂ concentrations and lifetimes, and the two-way matching between irregular satellite pixels and regular model grid cells, resulting in more reliable emission estimates. Filling in missing satellite data through data fusion, improving wind data resolution and accuracy, and improving NO _x chemical loss estimation will significantly enhance the quality of emission inversion.

Aquatic ecosystems are a significant source of methane emissions. Although methane production has previously been recognized to only occur in oxygen-deprived environments, recent research has shown that aerobic water environments also experience high methane levels, known as the “methane paradox”. This phenomenon is linked to the presence of algae that can directly produce methane through photosynthesis or the use of specific compounds. Moreover, algae create conditions conducive to methane production by other microorganisms. However, the specific ecological mechanism of aerobic methane production by algae remains not yet fully understood, making accurate global methane level accounting difficult. Future studies should focus on uncovering the molecular regulation of aerobic methane production by algae and how they adapt to external conditions.

Sandy braided rivers can create extensive oil and gas reservoirs, with channel bars representing predominant sedimentary features. These bars, including compound middle channel bars and compound sidebars, exhibit complex internal architectural patterns resulting from multiple episodes of erosion, cutting, and redeposition during formation. To address these complexities, numerical simulations of sedimentation were employed to replicate the growth and evolution of the bars, enabling the analysis of repetitive sedimentation and erosion-cutting processes shaping their architecture. The results indicate the following: \mathrm{①} compound middle bars experienced downward migration followed by lateral migration due to water flow from both sides, whereas sidebars underwent lateral migration first and then downward migration due to water flow from one side; \mathrm{②} compound middle bars developed through downstream, lateral, and vertical accretions, whereas sidebars formed through lateral, vertical, or infilling deposits, all from bottom to top; and \mathrm{③} compound sidebars exhibited greater variation in the scale of lateral accretions compared to middle bars, displaying multiple generations and intricate interleaving relationships. A deeper understanding of the internal architecture of middle and sidebars provides novel insights into the characterization of underground oil and gas reservoirs.

Geodiversity encompasses the diversity of abiotic materials, forms, and processes on and beneath the surface of the Earth. This study investigates the impact of geodiversity on biodiversity, shedding light on the interplay between subsurface-aboveground dynamics and geological-biological roles in natural ecosystems. Synthesizing domestic and international research, we explore the relationship between geodiversity and biodiversity, highlighting their joint role in maintaining natural ecosystems. Specifically, we focus on understanding the formation and maintenance mechanisms of high geodiversity supporting high biodiversity. Additionally, we examine the impact of geodiversity on biodiversity across various spatial scales, noting differences in effects at global, landscape, and local scales. We also underscore the lack of a unified understanding of the impacts of geodiversity on biodiversity and its driving mechanisms, particularly in protected areas. Furthermore, we summarize research methods for geodiversity assessment, including qualitative, quantitative, and qualitative-quantitative approaches, and highlight the effectiveness of the qualitative-quantitative method. Lastly, we suggest that future research should emphasize strengthening empirical analyses of geodiversity on biodiversity within nature reserves, integrating geodiversity on biodiversity research into the management of protected areas, and optimizing geodiversity assessment methods.

The objective evaluation of small-scale variables’ forecast performance is vital for the application and development of Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP). Traditional point-to-point verification has significant limitations in the evaluation of high-resolution NWP. The Object-based Diagnostic Evaluation (MODE) method utilizes convolution functions and a given threshold to identify objects in the forecast and observation fields, extract their attributes, and diagnose the performance of the NWP. It has been widely applied in weather forecasting. This paper systematically reviews the academic ideas, technical framework, algorithm flow, and verification indices of the MODE spatial verification method. Subsequently, this paper summarizes the typical applications of MODE verification in precipitation forecasting, weather radar, satellite cloud images, ensemble forecasting, and other elements. It elaborates on the significance of verification results in evaluating the quality of NWP and their role in improving the accuracy of weather forecast results, both subjectively and objectively. Furthermore, it introduces recent updates and developments in MODE verification methods. These include the comprehensive evaluation index MODE Composite Score (MCS), which considers the mismatched attributes of objects, three-dimensional spatiotemporal object tracking using ellipsoids as targets, and the verification method, MODE Time Domain (MTD). Finally, it discusses the MODE verification method's applicability, advantages, and limitations while considering its future development direction and application prospects. The purpose of this study is to provide references for better application and diagnosis of NWP performance using the MODE method.

The Sumatera Basin Group is a typical back-arc basin in Southeast Asia and is the largest oil and gas enrichment area in Indonesia. In the past five years, it has been found that the new oil and gas reserves are on the rise, and the amount of resources to be discovered is large, which has great exploration potential. This study systematically sorts out the hydrocarbon exploration history, main oil and gas resource distribution, and basin tectonic evolution characteristics of the Sumatra Basin group and analyzes the differences in oil and gas distribution and its main controlling factors in the back-arc basin of Sumatra. The uneven distribution patterns of oil and gas were mainly controlled by the differential distribution of source rocks during the fault depression period. The three-stage tectonic evolution during the fault depression period controlled the distribution of sedimentary facies in different types of sedimentary environments, which in turn affected the distribution of the main source rocks. Secondly, crustal tension thinning and magmatism promoted the formation of high heat flow values in the shallow layer of the back-arc area, which accelerated the pyrolysis of the hydrocarbon source rocks. Combined with the oil and gas exploration history of the back-arc basin group in Sumatra and the amount of oil and gas resources to be discovered, it is considered that deep-water areas, such as the Andaman III PSC block in the northern part of the Sumatra Basin, the new strata of the basement buried hill under the source of the South Sumatra Basin, and the low exploration degree areas on land in the Central Sumatra Basin are new areas for the next mature basin exploration.

With growing concerns about ecosystem functioning and the services provided by soil, the study of soil aggregates has increasingly become a central discipline of modern soil science, with ongoing updates to consensus and methodology. In this review, we provide a holistic overview of the understanding and characterization of the soil aggregate system that has emerged over the last two decades. The evolution of concepts related to soil aggregation, size fractionation, and structural characterization is presented, along with discussions on the separation and examination of the biophysical structure. Additionally, the final core scientific consensus on the soil hierarchy system is synthesized. The key points of understanding soil aggregates are as follows: \mathrm{①} Soil aggregates are considered the fundamental micro-architectural and functional units, composed of mineral particles, organic matter, and microbiomes through their interactions and co-occurrence, thus representing the basic functional particles of soil in nature; \mathrm{②} The micro-spatial distribution of soil aggregates at different hierarchical levels results in the heterogeneity and functional diversity of soil; \mathrm{③} The ultimate nature of soil aggregates can be envisioned as an embedded bio-pore system, created through the dual structure of aggregates and the associated pore system governed by the hierarchical aggregate system; \mathrm{④} A soil aggregate system is generally represented by three major hierarchical size fractions: macroaggregates, microaggregates, and the silt/clay fraction, with macroaggregates formed by binding microaggregates and/or silt-clay particles with coarse organic matter, resembling a pomegranate structure; \mathrm{⑤} Wet sieving of field-moist samples is recommended for the preparation of soil aggregate separates, although dry or moist sieving is often used for samples from drylands; \mathrm{⑥} μCT tomography technology is a powerful tool for quantifying and visualizing the pore system of soil aggregates, with the potential to link soil life processes to ecosystem services. Global cooperation is encouraged to develop a unified protocol for fractionating, quantifying, and visualizing the soil hierarchy system of aggregates across the world’s soils. With these developments, the complex soil system, particularly its biodiversity, can be explored at the aggregate scale. Based on the updated understanding and characterization of the soil aggregate system, nature-based solutions for global soil management policies and technical options will be provided, contributing to Earth’s sustainability.

The Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings are home to a significant number of rock glaciers. These formations, due to their unique characteristics of water storage and response to climate, not only impact the solid water resources in the region but also contribute to an increased risk of corresponding disasters, garnering growing attention. However, there remains a notable gap in research concerning the identification of rock glaciers, estimation of ice volume, and simulation of dynamic processes. This gap hinders the accurate assessment of changes in rock glaciers and their climate response characteristics in areas lacking data. This review systematically analyzes the distribution characteristics of rock glaciers in the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings while comprehensively investigating the research progress on the identification of rock glaciers, estimation of ice volume, and understanding of dynamic processes. Due to the scarcity of observational data and methodological uncertainties, numerous challenges persist in the identification of rock glaciers, estimation of ice volume, and simulation of dynamic processes in the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings. In the future, efforts will focus on deepening our understanding of the interaction mechanisms between climate and the dynamic processes of rock glaciers. This will involve strengthening monitoring efforts using Space-Air-Ground-based multi-level, multi-angle, and multi-method approaches. Furthermore, the integration of artificial intelligence and new observation technologies into methods for identifying rock glaciers and estimating ice volume will be pursued. These advancements will enable the accurate evaluation of changes, future trends, and impacts of rock glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings under climate change conditions, ultimately supporting the sustainable social and economic development of the region.

The Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO) serves as a crucial window for understanding the Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution of the North China Craton. However, the lack of research on collision-related structures, particularly in the southern segment, significantly impedes a thorough understanding of the tectonic evolution of the TNCO. A systematic study of the structure and geochronology was conducted on the Taihua Complex in the southern part of the TNCO. The results indicate that the Taihua Complex underwent intense ductile deformation with widespread preservation of ductile shear zones and syn-shearing folds, notably sheath folds. The kinematics of ductile shear zones and syn-shearing folds exhibit consistent top-to-the-WNW sense of shear, with deformation temperatures ranging from 600 to 650°C. The evolution of syn-shearing folds and the rotation of syn-tectonic leucocratic veins within shear zones record the progressive deformation process. The zircon U-Pb ages of syntectonic migmatites within the shear zones constrain the timing of ductile deformation to between 1 890 and 1 843 Ma. A comprehensive analysis of the geometry, kinematics, geochronology, and deformation temperatures suggests that ductile shear zones and regionally scaled sheath folds represent the exhumation structures of the orogenic belt, supporting the orogenic model of SE-directed subduction polarity. Based on the new structural and chronological data, in conjunction with previous research, it is proposed that the TNCO experienced a protracted orogenic evolution process, with the interval from 1.97 to 1.89 Ga signifying the continental subduction stage, 1.89 to 1.84 Ga corresponding to the subsequent exhumation stage, and 1.84 to 1.78 Ga corresponding to the post-orogenic extension phase. This protracted collisional orogeny process in the TNCO provides robust evidence for the sustained occurrence of a large-scale collisional orogeny for over 100 Mya.

As computing power continues to improve, the horizontal grid resolution of numerical weather prediction models has reached the kilometer-to-sub-kilometer scale. This grid scale is comparable to the characteristic turbulent scales in the convective boundary layer, allowing the numerical models to resolve the organized convective structures. The assumptions of traditional one-dimensional boundary layer parameterization schemes (suitable for horizontal resolutions of several kilometers or coarser) and large eddy simulation three-dimensional turbulent closure schemes (suitable for horizontal resolutions below several tens of meters) do not hold at this scale, which is referred to as the gray zone. This study discusses the applicability and limitations of traditional parameterization methods and introduces the gray zone of the convective boundary layer from three perspectives: theory, methodological approaches, and impact. It summarizes the characteristics of the simulation methods at the CBL gray zone scale developed over the past two decades and explores the impact of the boundary layer process simulation at this scale on other physical processes (e.g., shallow/deep convection) in numerical models. Further, we anticipate future research directions and approaches.

In the context of the Anthropocene crisis, studying the impact of human activities on the Earth's ecological environment is crucial. Spheroidal Carbonaceous Particles (SCPs), novel markers of human activity in geological records, originate from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels at high industrial temperatures. With advancements in global industrialization, SCPs research and applications have become increasingly important. This study systematically reviews the research history and characteristics of SCPs, highlighting their stable chemical properties, unique morphological features, and easy accessibility, which make them a unique component of black carbon research. It then summarizes the significant applications of SCPs in reflecting regional environmental pollution, aiding in sediment dating and tracing atmospheric pollution sources. This study also identified the shortcomings of SCPs research, such as human error in identification, the relative scarcity of research records in the Southern Hemisphere and outside lakes, unclear potential hazards in ecosystems, and the influence of various factors on their application in sediment dating. In the future, it will be necessary to establish identification and reference standards for SCPs using online databases; explore their ecological and environmental significance in recording human activities on a global scale; and determine stable, reliable, and comparable regional SCP chronologies to further refine and deepen the current research.

Coprophilous fungal spores, “Non-Pollen Palynomorph” parts of pollen analysis, are mainly used to reconstruct past changes in the population sizes of herbivores and intensity of pastoral activities. By systematically summarizing research examples of modern processes and paleoecological applications of coprophilous fungal spores at home and abroad, this study identified that foreign research has focused on the diversity, influencing factors, and dissemination, transportation, and deposition processes of coprophilous fungal spores. Sporormiella-type, Sordaria spp., and Podospora sp. have emerged as reliable indicators of herbivore activity; in particular Sporormiella-type coprophilous fungal spores have found widespread applications in different study areas. A strong correlation between coprophilous fungal spores and grazing activity has been found in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. International paleoecological studies have demonstrated that Sporormiella-type fungal spores effectively indicate the extinction of large herbivores and fluctuations in grazing intensity. Domestic studies have identified the suppression of human hunting activities by herbivores during the Early and Middle Holocene. Key transitional periods were identified, such as the beginning of grazing activity about 5.6 ka, an increase after approximately 4.0 ka, and a significant increase during the historical period. In future research, it will be necessary to enhance the modern processes of coprophilous fungal spores investigation to understand the production, transmission, deposition, and preservation of coprophilous fungal spores and the mechanisms involved. Additionally, to explore the relationship between coprophilous fungal spores and herbivore population sizes, vegetation status, sedimentary environment, and transport dynamics to provide valuable information for the accurate interpretation of fossil coprophilous fungal spore records of natural sedimentary strata by combining multiple indicators and employing interdisciplinary evidence. Therefore, further research regarding the modern processes and applications of coprophilous fungal spores is of great significance in understanding the histories of past human activities and their interactions with environmental changes.

Inter-ocean exchange between the tropical Pacific and the Indian Ocean, which relies on throughflow from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, serves not only as a crucial conduit for the exchange of mass, momentum, and energy between the Indo-Pacific basins, but also as an oceanic channel for the propagation of climate anomalies between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In addition, it plays a key role in the closure of the Great Ocean conveyor belt by facilitating the compensation of surface waters in the deep Atlantic. Therefore, interocean exchange is a pivotal component of global ocean and climate systems. It has been recognized as one of the most important academic hotspots for ocean circulation in interocean change regions and their related climates. Since the 1990s, international cooperative actions have been conducted, focusing on the observation of inter-ocean exchange. Starting in 2007, Chinese researchers have conducted observations in the main strait and channels of interocean exchange regions by collaborating with Indonesian researchers. Currently, they have established the largest on-site array for the synchronous observation of interocean exchange. The array covers the key inflow, throughflow, and outflow regions. This paper reviews the major progress and open issues of inter-ocean exchange from four aspects: \mathrm{①} multiscale variations of inter-ocean exchange, \mathrm{②} cross-scale and \mathrm{③} cross-basin interactions, and \mathrm{④} modulation of the primary climate modes of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The prospects of the key research goals for the next five to ten years are also outlined.

Earth science is crucial in economic and social development. A quantitative research framework was established to conduct a multi-level analysis of international trends in earth science, focusing on international status and influence of earth science in China. The analysis encompasses macro-, meso-, and micro-level analyses. Based on literature data, this framework analyzes various dimensions such as output scale, collaboration networks, research topics, topic popularity, and international power. Our analysis shows that since 2012, global Earth science has maintained a relatively active and steady development trend. China has made significant progress in output, representative institutions, collaboration networks, highly cited papers, international power, etc. Policy recommendations are proposed for the development of Earth science in China, including strategic planning in the discipline, deep international scientific cooperation, leadership in international frontier scientific programs, the establishment of discipline-specific data centers, redevelopment of new technological tools, interdisciplinary research integration, and the value of economic and social development. These recommendations are based on domestic and international strategic plans and quantitative research findings. Examples include increasing medium- and long-term disciplinary strategic planning, promoting high-level international S & T cooperation, and initiating China’s cutting-edge international scientific programs.

In global subduction systems, the subduction inputs include normal oceanic slabs and buoyant oceanic plateaus. Both exert different geological effects on subduction zones. Thus, studying the interactions among the oceanic plateau and subduction zone will be significant for understanding subduction zone geodynamics and the lateral accretion processes of the continental crust. This study summarizes the geological and geophysical characteristics of typical oceanic plateaus that are currently close to subduction zones. These, combined with the geological and geophysical features of adjacent subduction zones and recent numerical simulation data, are used to discuss the geological effects of the interaction between oceanic plateaus and subduction zones. In terms of kinematics and geometry, buoyant oceanic plateaus generally resist subduction, leading to subduction retreatment and the reversal of subduction polarity, thereby forming new subduction zones. The subduction process in some subduction zones is terminated by the arrival of oceanic plateaus, and the plateaus finally accrete to the mature arc/crustal margins and become part of the continental crust. However, recent studies have shown that part of the oceanic plateaus do not lead to the termination of the subduction process, but rather contribute to the occurrence of flat subduction, thereby resulting in tectonic shortening and the thickening of the overlying plate in the subduction zone area and the gradual migration of magmatic activity toward the intraplate setting. Geochemically, these oceanic plateaus with enriched compositions not only affect subduction zone lava geochemistry and the formation of hydrothermal deposits, but may also contribute to the formation of mantle heterogeneity. Finally, this study proposes some key scientific issues on the interaction of oceanic plateaus with subduction zones, including the detailed crust/mantle structure of subduction zones, the geological and geochemical response of the island arc and backarc basin to the new subduction tectonic framework of “oceanic plateau-trench,” and quantitative correlations between the factors controlling whether plateaus are accreted or subducted remain unclear.

Understanding the composition and formation conditions of regional airborne pollen is essential for elucidating the environmental significance of different pollen assemblages. A Burkard pollen trap was utilized to monitor airborne pollen on the northern slope of Mount Qomolangma over two consecutive years (2012 and 2013). Utilizing backward air mass trajectory analysis and source receptor models, this study delved into the pathways and potential sources of Alnus pollen, the predominant component during autumn. The analysis also explored the relationships between Alnus pollen, plant distribution, atmospheric circulation, and its environmental implications. The study yielded three main findings: Firstly, the predominant air mass transport pathway during the Alnus pollen season originated predominantly from the southwest of the sampling site. Secondly, the potential source area of Alnus pollen was primarily situated in the middle Himalayan region, encompassing central, eastern, and southern Nepal Tibet, largely aligning with the principal air mass transport pathway. Thirdly, interannual variations in Alnus pollen quantity, transport pathways, and potential source areas may be linked to atmospheric circulation patterns. Specifically, the southwest air mass, influenced by the upper westerlies, exhibited a more pronounced impact on Alnus pollen dispersion. These findings offer foundational insights into the climatic significance of exotic pollen on the northern slope of Mount Qomolangma.

There exist three sets of quality shale that developed in the Dalong, Wujiangping, and Maokou Formations during the mid-upper Permian, which are important replacements for marine shale gas exploration or the Wufeng Formation-Longmaxi Formation. Based on the relationships between important geological events built on an isochronous stratigraphic framework, sedimentary structures, paleoenvironments, and ancient living organisms, the influence of major geological events, such as middle-late Permian upwelling and volcanic activity, on the development of organic-rich shale in northeastern Sichuan was studied. \mathrm{①} It was concluded that the 3rd member of the Maokou-Dalong Formation can be divided into five four-level sequences, among which the systems of TST1, TST3, TST4, and TST5 are favorable for black organic-rich siliceous shale development, and the geological response characteristics of Middle and Late Permian volcanic activity and upwelling events were clarified. \mathrm{②} A high-quality shale development model with the combined action of volcanic activity, upwelling, and other geological events was established. It was clear that SqPm-2 represents the initial stage underwent by tectonic extension. The upwelling brought abundant soluble silicon and other nutrients that are favorable for the rapid breeding of organisms such as diatoms, siliceous sponges, and radiolarians. Belonging to a typical coupled developing mode of upwelling and organisms, the shale has high carbon (>10.0%) and silicon (>70.0%) content, whereas the thickness is relatively thin, a typical “thin and high-quality” characteristic, which represents a favorable new layer for shale gas exploration in the Puguang area. SqPw-2 is the state that underwent rapid extension, the tephra that carries abundant nutrients is favorable for organic matter accumulation, belonging to the coupled developing mode of volcanic activity and organisms. The TOC of shale is >4% and siliceous minerals >50.0%, but it is relatively thin, which is favorable for further exploration and expansion. SqPd-1~SqPd-2 is the flourishing stage whereby the ocean trough came into being. The base subsided, and upwelling and hydrothermalism enabled siliceous organisms to flourish. A great deal of organic matter is maintained in deep anoxic environments, belonging to a coupled development mode of upwelling and thermal fluids. The high-quality shale layer is relatively thick (>30 m), which offers good exploration potential and is a favorable stratum for the next step of large-scale shale gas storage and production.

Storm deposits ranging from the Precambrian era to the present day are found extensively in stratigraphic layers spanning almost all ages. These deposits serve as good records preserving information on paleo-extreme weather events that transpired throughout this extensive timeframe. Research on palaeostorm deposits is crucial for supplying vital long-term information for forecasting the evolutionary trends of future extreme weather events. The precise recognition of storm deposits is the pivotal foundation of this research. In previous research, the primary emphasis has been placed on easily discernible sandy storm deposits, carbonate (calcareous) storm deposits, storm pebbles, cobbles, and shell beds associated with storms because of their relative ease of identification. However, there has been a notable absence of investigations on muddy storm deposits, which presents challenges for identification. In recent years, significant progress has been made by researchers in refining the methods and indicators for identifying coastal muddy storm deposits, understanding depositional processes, and reconstructing paleostorm history. These advancements have played a crucial role in enhancing our comprehension of storm sediment classifications and in reconstructing the detailed history of paleostorm activity at high resolution. This study focuses on reviewing the recent advances in identification indices for coastal muddy storm deposits. We found that the integrated use of elemental, isotopic, and organic geochemistry serves as a sensitive indicator critical for the identification of muddy storm deposits. However, further research is required on the response mechanisms between the geochemical identification indicators of muddy storm sediments and the dynamics of storm deposition processes. It is emphasized that systematic comparative studies of muddy storm sedimentation in different sedimentary environments, field in situ observations, and laboratory simulations, as well as the strengthening of interdisciplinary collaboration, are worthy of priority as research focuses and directions for the future.

Global lake systems have been facing ubiquitous aquatic environmental challenges since 1950. The baseline and changing history of lake aquatic environments can be reconstructed by quantitative transfer functions, which aids in the assessment of the degree of human impact on lake ecosystems and in setting practical targets for ecological restoration. The basic processes of developing and applying quantitative transfer functions are first introduced. Then, typical case studies from various lake catchments are comprehensively summarized to elaborate on the application of quantitative transfer functions based on sedimentary subfossils to reconstruct lake aquatic environmental parameters. These parameters include water pH, total phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, transparency, water level, salinity, and temperature. The rate and magnitude of deviation from natural baselines due to anthropogenic disturbances, changing trajectories, and underlying mechanisms in typical lake environments in the Anthropocene were examined from multiple perspectives. Finally, constraints and prospects for lake transfer functions are discussed from the following aspects: developing new indicators and a multi-proxy approach, improving training sets with larger sample sizes and machine learning, improving modern ecological studies of biological indicators, and combining transfer functions with ecosystem modeling to further improve the quality of transfer functions and enlarge application fields to provide scientific references and guidance for future research.

Plant sedimentary ancient DNA is an advanced method to analyze the information on paleovegetation, which can provide a broader perspective and additional details regarding paleovegetation and paleoenvironment from the perspective of molecular biology. We analyzed the main factors influencing the preservation of ancient plant sedimentary DNA. In addition, we outline the process of plant sedimentary ancient DNA analysis. We synthesized the progress of research on plant sedimentary ancient DNA in the dynamic evolutionary processes of plant communities, the reconstruction of climate and environmental changes, and the reconstruction of ecological evolutionary responses to human activities. By providing rapid, high-resolution information on ancient plant species, the ancient DNA analysis of plant sediments can be used to reconstruct the evolution of plant communities, quantitatively and semi-quantitatively reconstruct paleoclimates, and explore the impacts of human agricultural and pastoral activities on ecosystems. In the future, we should construct more perfect reference data for the DNA classification of plant species, strengthen the burial study of plant sedimentary ancient DNA molecules, promote the application of plant sedimentary ancient DNA in Quaternary paleoenvironmental research, and combine it with multiple indices to obtain more detailed paleoecological information. Therefore, plant sedimentary ancient DNA plays an important role in understanding the relationships between ancient vegetation, climate change, and human activity.

Ice thickness and storage are prerequisites for glaciological studies that predict future glacier changes, estimate available freshwater resources, and assess potential sea level rise. Based on Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) thickness data from 31 glaciers in western China, the parameters of the GlabTop2 (Glacier Bed Topography) model were calibrated and optimized. The simulation of ice thickness on the Qiangtang Plateau and the assessment of the total amount of glacier water resources revealed the following results: \mathrm{①} The average ice thickness simulated by the GlabTop2 model closely matched the measured average thickness, with a correlation of 0.87 and root-mean-square error of 18.2 m. Overestimation and underestimation of ice thickness by the model were 9% and -17% respectively. The ice thickness distribution along flow was better captured than the distribution across flow; \mathrm{②} The GlabTop2 model estimated that the ice storage of glaciers on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in 2022 was (177.6±26.6) km³, with an average ice thickness of (88.2±12.3) m. The glacier volume was mainly distributed between 5 600 and 6 200 m, amounting to (148.28±22.24) km3, which accounted for 84.4% of the total glacier volume of the Qiangtang Plateau. The glacial volumes in the other elevational bands were relatively small.

Based on the reanalysis of ship-borne continuous data observed in 2012 and 2014 and “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches, the combustion efficiency and CH₄ emission rate of flaring equipped on oil and gas platforms in the Penglai Region of the Bohai Sea were studied. The results showed that peak atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄ mixing ratios of approximately (11~20)×10^-6 and (100~260)×10^-9 were observed in the downwind area of flaring. The calculated combustion efficiency of associated gas flaring was (97.8±1.1)%, which was better than that in most countries worldwide. The CH₄ emission rates of flaring equipped on the oil and gas platforms were 3.6~6.1 Gg/a and 1.80~2.68 Gg/a, estimated using the “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches, respectively, indicating that the flaring was the primary source of atmospheric CH₄. On the other hand, the difference in the results estimated by the “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches was still remarkable, mostly due to the limited spatiotemporal representation of emission factors and observation data. This study is beneficial for promoting the recycling and reuse of associated gas and reducing CH4 emissions from marine oil and gas exploitation in China.

Ice-shelf calving has a direct impact on Antarctic mass loss and dynamic processes, and it is particularly important to study its spatial characteristics, environmental conditions, and controlling factors. Based on the machine learning algorithms and ice sheet dynamic models, utilizing remote sensing data on Antarctic ice shelf calving from 2005 to 2020, ice shelf surface fracture data, ice shelf buttressing value, spatial distribution data of Antarctic ice shelf damage, and basal melting data, combined with machine learning binary classification, the importance of 18 characteristic elements influencing ice shelf dynamic processes was analyzed, and the accuracy of seven different machine learning algorithms was calculated. The results indicate that the random forest algorithm achieves the highest accuracy in the binary classification of ice shelf calving and that surface meltwater has a significant impact on ice shelf collapse, indicating the feasibility of using both the intrinsic dynamics of the ice shelf and external environmental factors for prediction. Subsequent efforts should further couple dynamic models with machine learning algorithms and establish corresponding numerical modeling systems to depict ice-shelf calving events with higher spatiotemporal resolutions in terms of intensity and extent.

Soil is currently facing serious pollution, erosion, and degradation owing to global change, threatening the ecosystem stability and food security of China. Quantifying soil formation and evolution (time, rate, etc.) is a critical scientific issue in Earth sciences. Meteoric radioactive isotope ¹⁰Be (hereinafter referred to as meteoric ¹⁰Be) serves as a natural tracer, and its inventory in soil is controlled by soil age, surface erosion, and chemical weathering processes. Therefore, meteoric ¹⁰Be is an effective tool for quantitatively tracing soil formation and evolution over ten million years and has broad application prospects. First, this study summarizes and reviews the latest progress in the production, delivery, and deposition of meteoric ¹⁰Be in the Earth atmosphere, as well as its accumulation and migration in the soil profile. Reasonable estimation of the long-term deposition rate of meteoric ¹⁰Be and its migration to weathering zones are important challenges that urgently require resolution. Second, this study introduces the main methods used by meteoric ¹⁰Be to estimate the soil formation (residence) age and formation rate, indicating soil erosion and transportation on hill slopes. The key premise for applying meteoric ¹⁰Be technology is an understanding of the geological and environmental processes in the study area and a rational assessment of the calculation model. With the rapid development of accelerator mass spectrometry analysis capabilities in China, the widespread application of meteoric ¹⁰Be technology in quantitative research on soil evolution has helped solve problems such as predicting environmental ecosystem evolution and soil conservation on arable land.

The development of mountainous towns is limited by the terrain and landforms, resulting in an urban expansion model dominated by new city construction. The geographical spatial manifestation of this model is that the construction of new cities is far from the main urban area and urban construction land gradually expands toward higher slopes (i.e., gradient expansion of construction land). Although gradient expansion solves the problem of land resource scarcity in mountainous towns, it also increases the risk of geological disasters, such as land subsidence. Exploring the law of gradient expansion and identifying disaster risks are paramount. This study selected three new cities with severe gradient expansion as typical case areas and used DEM to obtain the gradient expansion areas of the new areas from 2017 to 2022. Based on Sentinel-1A SAR data from 2016 to 2020, SBAS InSAR technology was used to obtain surface deformation information in order to reveal the spatial correlation between gradient expansion and land subsidence in new areas. \mathrm{①} The results showed that, from 2017 to 2022, the gradient expansion phenomenon in Yan'an New Area, Liangjiang New Area, and Lanzhou New Area was significant, with gradient expansion areas accounting for 53.5%, 51.0%, and 45.2%, respectively. Yan'an New Area, which was most severely affected by terrain, had the highest proportion of gradient expansion areas, and the gradient expansion speed was consistent with the urban expansion speed trend. \mathrm{②} The maximum settlement velocities in Yan'an New Area, Liangjiang New Area, and Lanzhou New Area were 28, 30, and 29 mm/a, respectively. Settlement mostly occurred at the beginning of the expansion of the new area, and there were different scale-gradient expansion areas around the settlement area. \mathrm{③} The intensity of gradient expansion was positively correlated with the rate of land subsidence, and the clustering distribution of areas with high gradient expansion intensity and high ground subsidence rate indicated that urban gradient expansion accelerated the occurrence of land subsidence in the expansion area. This study had positive significance in exploring the correlation between urban gradient expansion and land subsidence, and in promoting the sustainable development of mountainous cities.