Submarine landslides are among the most common and destructive geological hazards on continental margins. Their development can significantly reshape seafloor morphology, generate high-density turbidity currents, and even trigger catastrophic tsunamis, posing serious threats to the safety and operation of sub-sea engineering infrastructures. The formation of submarine landslides typically involves long-term geological processes influenced by multiple interacting factors. Some large-scale submarine landslides exhibit multi-stage sliding events with complex movement histories. However, current understanding of the developmental characteristics and formation mechanisms of multi-phase submarine landslides remains limited, which hinders scientific insight into their evolutionary patterns. Based on high-resolution, two-dimensional (2D) multichannel seismic and borehole data, six phases of Mass Transport Deposits (MTDs) resulting from submarine landslides have been identified in the Kaiping Sag on the northwestern continental margin of the South China Sea. According to the established regional sequence stratigraphic framework, these MTDs are mainly concentrated within the Lower Hanjiang Formation and Yuehai Formation. Seismic interpretation results indicate that the internal structure of MTD 1 and 2 is highly deformed and significantly altered by subsequent geological processes, whereas MTD 3 to MTD 6 exhibit typical landslide features such as prominent headwall scarps and lateral margins. Calculation of sedimentation rates during the occurrence of each phase of MTDs reveals that high sedimentation rates occurring during periods of low sea level provided the necessary sediments for the occurrence of landslides. This rapid sediment accumulation likely prevented the timely expulsion of pore fluids, leading to elevated pore pressure within the sediments and the formation of unstable weak layers. In addition, the widespread development of tectonic normal faults (e.g., Shenkai Fault) and their intersecting relationships with all six MTDs strongly suggest that fault activity also played a significant role in triggering these landslides. This study provides new insights into the formation mechanisms of submarine landslides along the northwestern continental margin of the South China Sea, offering important scientific support for hydrocarbon exploration, geological hazard risk assessment, and disaster prevention and mitigation in the region.

Benthic foraminifera are excellent indicators of marine environmental quality due to their wide distribution, small size and large abundance, high species diversity, short life cycle, good preservation potential in marine sediments, and high sensitivity to environmental changes. Traditional monitoring of benthic foraminifera is mainly based on morphology, but this process is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and makes it difficult to detect some species with small individuals and low abundance. The investigation method based on DNA sequencing, with its advantages of high efficiency, high sensitivity, and environmentally friendly, provides a new way to identify benthic foraminifera species and assess community diversity. This paper reviews the progress of DNA sequencing technology in species identification and classification, community structure and diversity investigation, and identification of symbionts in large benthic foraminifera. As there are some technical limitations of DNA sequencing in benthic foraminifera monitoring, such as lack of standardized operation process, imperfection of reference databases, impossibility of absolute quantification of benthic foraminifera abundance, and overestimation of community diversity, optimization can be achieved by formulating a standardized and unified operation process, establishing an open and shared benthic foraminifera reference database, and combining the method with fluorescence quantitative PCR and environmental RNA sequencing technology. In the future, development and innovation of gene sequencing technology should be strengthened to explore the potential of DNA sequencing technology in benthic foraminifera monitoring in a detailed manner.

Internal Solitary Waves (ISWs), which are characterized by large amplitudes and strong nonlinearity, are pivotal dynamic phenomena in oceanic processes. These waves contribute significantly to vertical mixing, cross-isopycnal transport of nutrients and sediments, and modulation of marine ecosystems, while posing substantial risks to subsea infrastructures, underwater navigation, and offshore operations. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of their generation mechanisms, spatiotemporal evolution, and environmental impacts is critical for advancing oceanographic knowledge and ensuring maritime safety. The South China Sea (SCS) and its adjacent regions along the Maritime Silk Road, including the Sulu Sea (Sibutu Passage), Celebes Sea, Lombok Strait, and Andaman Sea, serve as global hotspots for ISW activity because of their complex bathymetry, intense tidal currents, and stratified water columns. This paper synthesizes multidisciplinary advances in ISW research across these regions, leveraging integrated methodologies such as multi-sensor satellite remote sensing (e.g., MODIS, VIIRS, and SAR), in situ observational networks, high-resolution numerical modeling (e.g., MITgcm, FVCOM), and emerging seismic oceanography techniques. Furthermore, the review identifies persistent gaps in knowledge, such as the role of mesoscale and submesoscale processes in wave–current interactions and interference effects between ISWs from multiple sources. Technical challenges, including the assimilation of multi-platform data into predictive models and the development of AI-driven forecast systems (e.g., physics-informed neural networks, convolutional neural networks), are critically assessed. The paper concludes by advocating for coordinated international observational campaigns and next-generation, non-hydrostatic models to unravel the multiscale complexity of ISWs, ultimately enhancing predictive capabilities for scientific and operational applications in these strategic waters.

Human-earth system science, as a foundation of sustainable development research, can help decision-makers design sustainable pathways through multidimensional perspectives, integrated concepts, and systematic thinking. It plays an increasingly important role in the construction of national economies, societies, and ecological civilizations. Human-earth system sustainable development assessment models and scenario analysis techniques have become important tools that are widely used and studied. However, current research lacks a summary of the progress and limitations of these models and scenario analysis techniques. To keep pace with international developments and promote the understanding and advancement of human-earth system modeling and decision analysis of Chinese scholars, it is necessary to review the current international research in this field systematically. By combining literature analysis and quantitative analysis, this study summarizes the difficulty of models in simultaneously supporting multiple sustainable development goals and the challenges in simulating the social dimension. We also analyze the challenges in capturing systematic change, scale conversion, interdisciplinary knowledge integration, uncertainty management, data mining, and the use of new technologies. Additionally, we summarize the methods for setting up scenarios, the general types of scenarios, the content of scenarios, the limitations in addressing internal scenario conflict cross-scale linkages, and connections with decision-making. This study provides an important reference for promoting innovative development among Chinese scholars in this field.

Groundwater-dependent vegetation is essential in arid ecosystems, where it maintains ecological balance and supports biodiversity. The health and functionality of this vegetation are closely linked to groundwater characteristics, including groundwater quality, distribution, and fluctuations. This review explores the relationship between vegetation and groundwater, methods for identifying groundwater-dependent vegetation, the impact of groundwater on the plants, adaptation mechanisms of these plants, and the nonlinear dependencies and thresholds of vegetation in groundwater environments. The objectives of the study are to provide a theoretical foundation for protecting and restoring arid ecosystems and to provide support for the sustainable development and utilization of groundwater resources. Future research should focus on plant responses to groundwater changes at the individual, population, and community scales; the effects of climate change and human activities on groundwater-dependent vegetation; innovative methods for studying ecosystem resilience and state-transition mechanisms for groundwater-dependent vegetation; and identifying stable water environment factors and catastrophic thresholds for typical groundwater-dependent vegetation.

Studying the relationship between ecosystem patterns and water conservation services is important for promoting ecosystem management and protecting the water supply. Based on the InVEST model, landscape ecology theory, and Pearson correlation coefficient analysis, this study explored the relationship between ecosystem patterns and water conservation services in the Nianchu River Basin during 2010—2020. The study yielded several interesting results: \mathrm{①} Grasslands account for more than 78% of the area, with stable bare land but active bidirectional transitions with grasslands. \mathrm{②} From 2010 to 2020, there was a slight increase in the fragmentation level of the composite ecosystem patterns within the basin. Grassland had a significantly higher Percentage of Landscape (PLAND), Mean Patch Size (MPS), and Aggregation Index (AI) than other ecosystem types. Bare land exhibited the most irregular patch shapes. Forest showed the most significant increase in Patch Density (PD) and a slight decrease in MPS. Urban areas expanded continuously. \mathrm{③} The total water conservation services for 2010, 2015, and 2020 were 272 million m³, 95 million m³, and 247 million m³, respectively, with grasslands contributing nearly 80% of the total. \mathrm{④} There is a significant correlation between the composite ecosystem pattern and water conservation services. Water conservation services are positively correlated with PD, Edge Density (ED), Landscape Shape Index (LSI), Modified Shannon’s Diversity Index (MSIDI), and Modified Shannon’s Evenness Index (MSIEI) but negatively correlated with MPS and AI. However, the correlations between different types of ecosystem patterns and water conservation services show significant variations. For example, PLAND and MPS are negatively correlated with water conservation services for grasslands but positively correlated with glaciers. In summary, grasslands dominate the ecological patterns of the Nianchu River Basin, and their degree of fragmentation is positively correlated with water conservation services. Furthermore, the relationships between different types of ecological patterns and water conservation services exhibit significant differences. This study provides a scientific basis for regional ecosystem management and water resource protection.

Abnormal atmospheric warming on the Tibetan Plateau has caused an imbalance in Asian Water Towers, leading to widespread and frequent cryospheric disasters such as ice avalanches and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). These events pose a significant threat to life and infrastructure downstream, impacting regional socioeconomic development. Our recent studies, conducted during the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program, utilized field observations, remote sensing, and modeling to examine glacial lakes and GLOFs on the Tibetan Plateau. As of 2020, we had identified 14 310 glacial lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, covering an area of 1 148.3 km², along with a 20.4% increase in lake number and a 20.2% increase in lake area since 1990. Hazard and risk assessments revealed 1 256 glacial lakes with high or very high hazard levels, including 182 glacial lakes with high or very high-risk levels. These high-risk glacial lakes pose severe GLOF threats to communities and infrastructure downstream. At the regional scale, the eastern Himalayan and southeastern Tibetan regions exhibit the highest number of glacial lakes, the largest area expansion, the most destructive GLOF hazards, and the highest concentration of very high hazard level and very high-risk level glacial lakes on the Tibetan Plateau. In terms of administrative regions, Shigatse City, Nyingchi City, and Shannan City in the Tibet Autonomous Region have the highest distribution of very high-risk level glacial lakes. Future research should focus on precise GLOF assessments, the development of monitoring and early warning systems, and strategies for adapting to GLOF disaster chains and transboundary threats.

Vegetation fire, as a significant disturbance factor in the Earth’s system, can have important impacts on Earth’s surface systems, such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and anthroposphere. The various gases and aerosol particles released during vegetation fires not only affect the atmospheric environment, but also pose risks to human health. Extreme vegetation fires can cause serious casualties and economic loss. In recent years, under the influence of global warming, various extreme weather events have occurred frequently, and the risk of vegetation fire disasters has also significantly increased. Understanding the stages and mechanisms of modern vegetation fires is of great scientific significance for predicting future changes in vegetation fires, and is of great practical importance for formulating fire management strategies. This study provides an overview of the research progress on vegetation fires in China from the perspective of the evolutionary history of vegetation fires and modern vegetation fire regimes. The following basic understanding is obtained regarding the pattern of modern vegetation fires: First, from historical records, modern vegetation fires are currently at their most frequent period since the Holocene, and from the late 20th century to the present, even to the mid-21st century, vegetation fires in China show an overall upward trend. Second, vegetation fires in China are mainly agricultural fires with forest wildfires as a supplement, concentrated in spring and autumn, and are mainly distributed in northeastern, southwestern, eastern, and southern China, showing regional diversification characteristics under the influence of human activities and climate change. In the future, efforts should be made to strengthen the review of the details of historical changes in vegetation fires in China, elucidate the overall modern vegetation fire regime, and provide more accurate predictions of future changes in vegetation fires.

Wind and solar energy have unparalleled advantages in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting energy transitions. However, the construction of onshore wind/solar farms occupies a tremendous amount of land resources and changes land use considerably. The operation of power generation facilities further changes the local microclimate and ecohydrological processes, profoundly affecting terrestrial carbon cycle processes. Therefore, it is important to clarify the potential impacts of wind/solar farms on the carbon cycle process at the site for sustainable development of the new energy industry. A systematic review of the research undertaken over the past two decades was conducted in this study, with special emphasis on the carbon cycle characteristics, impact mechanisms, and the dynamics and stability of carbon pools in onshore wind/solar farms. The results indicate that these wind/solar farms have the potential to improve local climate conditions, promote the restoration of vegetation, and thus increase the carbon sequestration potential in arid desert environments. However, considerable uncertainties exist regarding the recovery potential of either vegetation or soil carbon pools for wind/solar farms. We argue that there is an urgent need to \mathrm{①} conduct multi-scale and long-term monitoring of the carbon cycling processes in wind/solar farms, \mathrm{②} strengthen research on the synergistic mechanisms of the above- and below-ground carbon processes in onshore wind/solar farms, and \mathrm{③} quantitatively determine the carbon sequestration potential and its spatial and temporal characteristics in wind/solar farms. These efforts are expected to provide scientific references for sustainable design, management, and development of renewable energy sources in the future.

Qilian Shan, the youngest mountain range formed by the northward expansion of the Tibetan Plateau, plays a crucial role in understanding the expansion processes, uplift mechanisms, and evolution of orogenic belts. Drainage system evolution responds rapidly to mountain uplift, making the study of drainage development and evolution a critical approach for investigating the uplift and expansion of Qilian Shan. Based on chronological and provenance studies of geomorphic records, including erosion surfaces, river terraces, wind gaps and ancient river channels, and Cenozoic sedimentary strata, the current research on drainage system evolution in the Qilian Shan has yielded the following findings and insights: \mathrm{①} The formation and evolution of the upper reaches of the Yellow River in the eastern Qilian Shan involve a process of drainage reorganization driven by tectonic uplift or climate change, characterized by headward erosion and river capture; \mathrm{②} Research on river terraces in the Shiyang River and Heihe River basins of the northern Qilian Shan, as well as in the Lanzhou Basin of the eastern Qilian Shan, indicates climate change, and the tectonic uplift independently govern the timing (transitions between glacial and interglacial periods, and interglacial periods) and extent of river incision. Since the Holocene, terrace formation has been primarily driven by climate change, with river incision occurred during warm and humid periods; \mathrm{③} River terraces reliably record the evolution processes of major tributaries of the Yellow River in the eastern Qilian Shan, including the Huangshui River (flow reversal) and the Datong River (river capture); \mathrm{④} Study of chronology, provenance, and paleohydrology of Cenozoic sedimentary strata in the Yumu Shan of the northern Qilian Shan, as well as the Wulan and Chacha basins of the southern Qilian Shan, has reliably reconstructed the regional drainage evolution history, highlighting the significant potential of sedimentary strata for reconstructing reliable and detailed record of drainage evolution. However, numerous critical issues remain unresolved and require further investigations. Future research should prioritize and emphasize in-depth studies on geomorphic surface and sediment dating, integration of multi-source methods for provenance analysis, continuous exploration of geomorphic features, and advancements in numerical simulations and simulation modeling studies.

As the climate crisis intensifies, Earth system models have become increasingly significant as critical numerical simulation tools for evaluating and addressing future climate change. The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP), aimed at promoting model development and deepening the scientific understanding of the Earth's climate system, has become a central platform for international model exchange and application. This paper provides an overview of China’s participation in the Sixth Phase of CMIP (CMIP6), including a statistical analysis of citations, research trends, and key characteristics of the Chinese Earth system models in CMIP6-related studies. In addition, the Seventh Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP7), which is currently under preparation, is briefly introduced, and the opportunities and challenges faced by China in model development are summarized. Through continuous technological innovation, international cooperation, and exchanges, Chinese scientists are expected to make greater breakthroughs in the field of Earth and Climate System Models and contribute to Chinese wisdom and solutions for global climate change response and governance.

Over more than 50 years of continuous research and technological innovation, Fengyun Meteorological Satellite System has achieved significant progress. 21 Fengyun satellites have been launched. Currently, eight of these satellites operate stably in orbit, forming a comprehensive observation system that includes geostationary orbit and sun-synchronous polar orbit satellites. By reviewing the development history and current status of Fengyun meteorological satellites and remote sensing instruments; the effectiveness of ground segments in data reception, processing, and operation; and the construction and service of application systems, the technical capabilities of Fengyun meteorological satellites, their ground segments, and application systems were comprehensively analyzed. Through comparative analysis with major countries around the world in terms of meteorological satellite network observations, remote sensing instrument technology, and ground segment operation capabilities, it was found that the Fengyun Meteorological Satellites not only have a complete orbit layout and remote sensing instrument configuration, but their remote sensing instrument detection capability has reached the advanced international level, although some performance indicators still have spcace for improvement. Ground segments have established efficient data reception, processing, and service processes with advanced data preprocessing technology and sub-pixel-level geolocation accuracy. The radiometric calibration accuracy is 3% in the visible and near infrared channels and 0.2 K in the infrared channels. In addition, the Fengyun Meteorological Satellite System has established a comprehensive and complete quantitative product system for atmospheric, land, marine, and space weather, and has established China Radiometric Calibration Sites for Chinese remote sensing satellites, and carried out validation of the remote sensing products. Fengyun satellite data have been widely used in various fields, such as weather forecasting, climate change research, ecological environment monitoring, and natural disaster warning, and their application level continues to advance. In the future, the Fengyun meteorological satellite observation system will aim to evolve towards establishing a hybrid-architecture space observation system, achieving comprehensive and precise perception of observation elements, enabling intelligent and efficient operation of satellite-ground systems, integrating emerging technologies in data processing, expanding remote sensing application scenarios, and fostering international cooperation and sharing.

Since 1958, China has conducted numerous artificial fog dissipation field experiments and research. This paper summarizes the classification and characteristics of fog as well as the mechanisms and methods of artificial fog dissipation. Fog areas in China are extensively distributed, with obvious seasonal differences. Land fog is mostly radiation fog, whereas sea fog is distributed in foggy areas along the coast, and its formation and dissipation are restricted by various conditions. The methods and technical approaches for artificial warm and cold fog dissipation were determined. The dissipation methods for warm fog include heating, dynamic mixing, thermodynamic methods, and hygroscopic particle seeding; whereas the dissipation methods for cold fog include seeding silver iodide of ice nucleating agents and spraying refrigerants. Other methods such as ultrasound are currently being researched and tested. The applicability, advantages, disadvantages, and uncertainties of these seeding methods were analyzed. The applicability of the fog dissipation methods varies. When applying these methods, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the technical approaches, implementation challenges, cost-effectiveness, and fog dissipation efficacy in field trials and operational applications. Aircraft-induced downdraft mixing is a simple, expensive, and operationally challenging process for warm fog. Thermal heating is universally applicable to all warm fog types but is cost-prohibitive and reserved for emergencies or critical infrastructure (e.g., major international airports and vital seaports), particularly for high-temperature fog. For cold fog, silver iodide seeding exhibits poor nucleation efficiency at temperatures around -5 ℃ (optimal below -8 ℃), necessitating cooling agents like liquid nitrogen, dry ice, and propane. Despite its high cost, liquid-nitrogen seeding is preferred operationally owing to its reliability and ease of deployment.All the current methods can dissipate local small-range warm or cold fog, but none can dissipate large-scale fog systems. A comprehensive analysis of fog dissipation provided ideas and references for artificial fog dissipation experiments, seeding operations, and future development in China. Future research should integrate numerical modeling, laboratory experiments, and field trials to validate and optimize seeding techniques and enhance the operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

With the rapid accumulation of marine big data and the robust development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology, intelligent marine forecasting has shown greater precision and efficiency in this new era. Marine data can be categorized into point- and field-observation data based on the observation methods, providing foundational support for marine forecasting. Marine forecasting methods can be divided into three main types based on the characteristics of the dynamic marine processes and phenomena: point-to-point, field-to-point, and field-to-field forecasting. These forecasting approaches not only cover a variety of marine phenomena but also address different forecasting requirements. Through a case analysis, this study specifically introduces intelligent forecasting models and results for point-to-point internal solitary wave forecasting, field-to-point El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) forecasting, and field-to-field phenomena such as mesoscale eddies and sea ice. Finally, it explores the development directions for intelligent marine forecasting in the context of big data, suggesting that enhancing the integration of data-driven methods with physical mechanisms can improve forecast accuracy and real-time responsiveness, thereby providing technical support for marine environmental monitoring, disaster warning, and the sustainable use of marine resources.

Passive Microwave Brightness Temperature (PMWBT) is crucial for retrieving various land surface parameters. However, PMWBT images often exhibit many missing observations, particularly in low-latitude areas, owing to the limited coverage of polar-orbit satellites equipped with PMW radiometer imagers. Filling these gaps is essential to enhance the spatiotemporal integrity and application potential of PMW-derived products. To better understand the problem and propose solutions, the PMW radiative transfer theory and the reasons for the observation gaps are comprehensively reviewed. Subsequently, two filling approaches, multi-source data filling and effective data reconstruction, which are commonly used in remote sensing, were introduced and assessed for their suitability in filling PMWBT gaps. Upon reviewing related research and existing issues in filling PMW BT orbital gaps, it was observed that current studies on filling satellite-borne passive microwave brightness temperature orbital gaps are limited, and all use multi-source data with low generalizability because of sensor differences. In conclusion, the current research status and challenges are succinctly summarized. Furthermore, from the perspective of using reanalysis data and time-series modeling, the construction of a high-precision, general reconstruction method under special underlying surface conditions was explored.

As one of the most significant cryospheric landforms that respond to climate warming in permafrost regions, thermokarst lakes profoundly influence ecological changes, regional hydrological cycles, and biogeochemical processes while compromising the stability of permafrost engineering. This study reviews recent advances in the formation and evolution of thermokarst lakes, their hydrological cycles, heat transfer, ecological and environmental effects, and engineering impacts across northern hemisphere permafrost regions. Research indicates that in the discontinuous permafrost zones of the Arctic, lake and pond areas show a predominantly decreasing trend, whereas, in continuous permafrost zones, both expansion and shrinkage are observed. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, climate warming and increased precipitation have led to the rapid formation and expansion of thermokarst lakes. The evolution of these lakes, coupled with hydrological cycling and thermal effects, alters the physicochemical properties of the surrounding soils, influences hydrothermal dynamics in alpine ecosystems, and reduces the stability of adjacent permafrost engineering structures. Furthermore, the development of thermokarst lakes accelerates the decomposition of permafrost carbon stocks, releasing greenhouse gases such as CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O, which further feedback into the climate system. Currently, coupled water-heat-carbon cycling processes and their environmental implications represent a key research focus in permafrost science. Future studies should comprehensively consider the interactive effects of climate change and human activities and, based on coupled water-heat-carbon cycling processes, develop high-precision land surface process models to investigate ecological succession, water resource dynamics, and carbon cycling in permafrost regions under changing environmental conditions, thereby advancing cryospheric science.

Carbon neutrality is a crucial strategy for combating global warming, and negative emissions technologies are key to achieving this goal. As the largest carbon reservoir on Earth, the ocean plays an irreplaceable role in regulating global carbon cycling and holds significant potential for negative emissions. Ocean alkalinity enhancement is a highly efficient and ecologically beneficial negative emissions technology. This technology increases ocean alkalinity by adding alkaline minerals to seawater, thereby enhancing the absorption of atmospheric CO₂ and improving the buffer capacity to resist ocean acidification. This study introduces the mechanisms and advancements in ocean alkalinity enhancement research at multiple scales based on the dissolution theory of carbonates in the ocean. Assessing the potential for negative emissions and associated costs reveals several challenges regarding implementation pathways, environmental impacts, and public acceptance. Considering the specific conditions of China’s coastal regions and the characteristics of ocean alkalinity enhancement technology, this study proposes a pathway integrated with wastewater treatment plants and coastal engineering. Furthermore, it provides an innovative concept on the application of ocean alkalinity enhancement and enriches the scientific understanding of blue carbon sinks.

Tracking the Earth’s energy imbalance is one of the key methods for studying the contribution of human activities to climate change. Energy imbalance directly reflects the complex responses and feedback of the climate system and is an important indicator of climate change. However, accurately estimating the Earth’s energy budget has long been a challenge. Observations of the top of the atmosphere and surface radiative fluxes have high uncertainties, and it is difficult to validate different observation datasets. In addition, these high uncertainties lead to inaccurate estimates of changes in Earth’s energy budget fluxes. Furthermore, estimating surface radiative fluxes is challenging because of the lack of high-quality, high-resolution observational data. Recently, methods using ocean heat content/sea-level height data for the indirect estimation of the Earth’s energy budget have been widely applied. Considering that most of the energy imbalance flows into the ocean heat content, ocean data observations can yield estimates of the Earth’s energy imbalance with lower uncertainty. Additionally, reasonable estimates of the Earth’s energy budget can be obtained through multi-model ensemble methods using Earth system model outputs, supplemented with appropriate weighting strategies. By improving data integration capabilities and developing related technologies, climate scientists continuously enhance their understanding of the Earth’s energy budget, providing more precise scientific evidence for understanding and addressing increasingly severe global warming.

Long-term observations and data analysis of the Earth's middle and upper atmosphere, an important region for studying atmospheric processes and even climate change for studying human activities and climate change, are still insufficient. Terahertz limb-sounding technology can obtain atmospheric profiles all day and near all weather with high vertical resolution (approximately 1~5 km) and is particularly sensitive to some of the halogen gases associated with ozone depletion, making it an important method for measuring the Earth's middle and upper atmospheric parameters. The basic principles and advantages of terahertz limb sounding are summarized, the basic framework of the terahertz radiometer is introduced, the development of terahertz limb sounding technology domestically and internationally in the past three decades is discussed, the latest research status is reviewed, the future development direction is discussed, and terahertz limb sounding technology is summarized and outlooked to provide a reference basis for related research.

Short-duration heavy precipitation is one of the most substantial severe convective disasters in China and is prone to causing urban waterlogging and secondary geological disasters, such as mountain torrents, mudslides, and landslides. This paper reviews recent progress in short-duration heavy precipitation research in China and briefly compares relevant findings from the United States and Europe. It covers the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and diurnal variation patterns of short-duration heavy precipitation, atmospheric circulation patterns and environmental conditions that influence its occurrence and development in major regions of China, radar echo characteristics and raindrop distributions, impact of topography and urbanization on its formation and development, and application of artificial intelligence in potential forecasting, short-term forecasting, and nowcasting of short-duration heavy precipitation in China. With global warming, the frequency and intensity of short-duration heavy precipitation events have increased. In the future, further research will be required to enhance understanding of the formation mechanisms and environmental conditions, improve the spatiotemporal resolution of observations, expand the use of new observation data, and enhance forecasting capabilities in high-resolution, rapid-update cycle assimilation numerical weather prediction models through the fusion and analysis of dense multisource observation data. Additionally, optimizing deep learning models and algorithms—particularly in the development of largescale deep learning models—will be crucial for improving forecasting and early warning capabilities for short-duration heavy precipitation.

A new framework for studying climate change projections and disaster risks oriented towards carbon neutrality was developed using a division method of positive emissions, net zero, and net negative periods. Focusing on the main Belt and Road regions, future mean and extreme climate change projections and disaster risks oriented towards carbon neutrality were systematically addressed under the SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-2.6 sustainable development pathways. Moreover, it is projected that over global carbon neutrality or net-zero periods, climate change will exhibit new characteristics and patterns, and disaster risks will undergo new changes over the main Belt and Road regions. The newly developed framework provides a new scheme for climate change projection and disaster risk assessment. The seventh assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and other future assessment reports on climate change should include climate change projections and disaster risk assessments oriented towards carbon neutrality, which can provide new scientific knowledge for jointly dealing with climate change and achieving sustainable development. Additionally, the role and application of Artificial Intelligence in future climate change projections and climate disaster risks assessments are discussed.

As the largest desert in the world, the Sahara Desert emits dust aerosols, accounting for 50%~60% of the global total dust, exerting significant impacts on regional and even global climate, environment, and ecosystems. Previous domestic and international studies reported two primary transport pathways for Saharan dust: westward across the North Atlantic, reaching North America, or northward to the European continent. In recent years, studies have shown that Saharan dust can be transported across the Middle East and Central Asia, undergoing long-distance (nearly 10 000 km) to East Asia, which is the third transport pathway for Saharan dust. Therefore, this study primarily summarizes the research progress on the long-range transport of Saharan dust to East Asia and its impacts, including the physical and chemical properties of Saharan dust, dust emission mechanisms, transport processes, and climatic and environmental effects. Finally, we highlight the current challenges in the research on the eastward transport of Saharan dust and provide suggestions and ideas for future research.

As the world’s largest developing country and infrastructure powerhouse, China not only has an extremely high demand for concrete but also increasingly focuses on enhancing the durability of concrete to delay aging and improving its resistance to seawater corrosion. Ancient Roman concrete, reflecting the wisdom of the Romans, possesses remarkable durability and corrosion resistance, which has attracted extensive research from scholars across various fields. By collecting petrological information from the volcanic area of the Roman volcanic province and comparing the mineralogical changes of ancient Roman concrete before and after exposure to seawater, it is found that the use of high-alumina volcanic ash and the formation of secondary aluminum silicate minerals are crucial for the high durability and corrosion resistance of ancient Roman concrete. The study discovers that ancient Roman concrete contains materials such as quicklime, volcanic ash, and ceramic fragments. The reaction between high-alumina volcanic ash and quicklime, as well as ceramic fragments in the aggregates, form a structure composed of C-A-H, C-S-H, and C-A-S-H, which effectively bond the aggregates. Over time, these C-A-S-H compounds can crystallize into minerals such as tobermorite and phillipsite. These special minerals not only exhibit high mechanical strength but also adsorb harmful ions during interaction with seawater, thereby protecting the concrete from seawater corrosion. Additionally, the material composition of ancient Roman concrete has a unique self-healing mechanism, allowing it to spontaneously fill cracks. As an artificial rock, ancient Roman concrete demonstrates unique advantages in durability and corrosion resistance. A systematic study of its petrological characteristics can provide theoretical guidance for the development of modern concrete and other geological materials.

Healthy development of the Qilian Mountain life community is a pivotal foundation for maintaining the ecological security barrier of western China and advancing ecological civilization strategies. By discerning the intrinsic essence of the life community concept, this study elucidated the structural attributes of the Qilian Mountain life community in the Gansu region. It traced the historical progression of human-nature relationship and the evolutionary trajectory of human-nature interaction within the framework of the life community paradigm, highlighting the crucial challenges facing the future development of the Qilian Mountain life community in Gansu. The findings indicate that the practice of the community in this region has undergone a transformative process, moving from negative environmental feedback to human-guided positive intervention, and ultimately toward synergistic development between humans and nature. Although the antagonistic subject-object dichotomy between humans and nature was initially mitigated, true synergistic coexistence and mutual value realization remain unachieved. Based on this, this study identified the primary challenge for future development: establishing a green development model aligned with life community values. Such a model should be grounded in multi-element coordinated restoration, holistic regional spatial planning, and multi-stakeholder collaboration to achieve shared human and natural values. Future research should leverage historical data, remote sensing imagery, and long-term monitoring to comprehensively elucidate the dynamic interaction mechanisms between human practices and the elements of “mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, grasslands, deserts, and glaciers,” thus providing a scientific foundation for the sustainable development of the Qilian Mountain life community.

Degassing of CO₂ from the solid Earth significantly influences the surface carbon cycle. In addition to volcanic activity, various types of active faults in nonvolcanic regions serve as crucial pathways for the migration and release of deep carbon to the surface. The continental collision zone, exemplified by the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings, is one of the most tectonically active regions in the world. However, general research on deep carbon origins and outgassing rates of active faults remains limited. Southwestern Yunnan lies on the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and is characterized by a network of left- and right-lateral strike-slip faults. The area experiences frequent seismic events and abundant hydrothermal activity. The hydrochemical, hydrogen, and oxygen isotope compositions of 12 hot springs in the Lancang fault zone of southwestern Yunnan indicate that the hot spring water exhibits an HCO₃-Na type composition, primarily sourced from atmospheric precipitation, and shows no significant contamination from magmatic or metamorphic fluids. During subsurface fluid circulation, it undergoes mineral dissolution and ion exchange reactions with the surrounding rock minerals, which are influenced by the dissolution of minerals, such as silicates, carbonates, and evaporites. A mass balance model based on the concentrations of Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) and its carbon isotopic compositions shows that the contribution of deep carbon to DIC is approximately 46.9%~78.0%, which, together with the flow rates of thermal spring water, yield an estimated deep carbon outflux of approximately 440 t/a for the Lancang fault zone. The total deep carbon outflux of the thermal springs in southwestern Yunnan was estimated to be approximately 3×10⁴ t/a. The higher deep carbon fluxes and contributions observed in the thermal springs near the Lancang fault zone demonstrate the predominant influence of strike-slip faults on the origin and release of deeply sourced carbon-bearing fluids. Considering the tectonic context of the strike-slip movement, we suggest that the deformation and fracturing of deep rocks within the Lancang fault zone facilitated the migration of a significant volume of metamorphic CO₂ and a minor portion of mantle-derived carbon to the shallow geothermal system. This process might have resulted in the formation of a reservoir enriched in CO₂ fluids that could transfer carbon to the surface. These findings provide observational evidence that enhances our understanding of the mechanisms of deep carbon release in the active fault zones of southwestern Yunnan.

The Yellow River Basin is an important center of ecological civilization in China and its upstream and midstream water circulation processes have a notable impact on the overall water resource changes and distribution in the basin. Over the past 40 years, summer precipitation in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River has shown interannual variability, which is closely related to the water vapor content in the region. Compared with that in 1982-2002, the net water vapor input increased and evapotranspiration decreased significantly in 2003-2019 and the atmospheric water vapor content did not show significant interdecadal variability owing to the combined effect of both. Dynamic precipitation recycling model and moisture source attribution method were further used to investigate the moisture sources and contribution. Results show that the water vapor in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River mainly came from external input (83.4%) and local supply (11.4%), of which the sources of external input were the central Eurasian (32.5%), the Tibetan Plateau (23.6%), the South China Sea-western Pacific (12.3%), the South Asia-northern Indian Ocean (10.7%), and the North Africa-West Asian areas (4.3%). The interdecadal variation in the moisture contribution of each moisture source subregion were consistent with that in the local difference between evaporation and precipitation. Compared with that in 1982-2002, the water vapor supply capacity of the central Eurasian, North Africa-West Asian, and South China Sea-western Pacific areas increased in 2003-2019 and the moisture contribution showed an interdecadal increase, providing more water vapor to the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, which were the major moisture sources contributing to the increase in precipitation in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River. Conversely, evapotranspiration in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River showed a significant decrease. The results showed that evapotranspiration was negatively correlated with two-meter temperature, wind speed, and normalized difference vegetation index and positively correlated with shallow soil moisture (0~7 cm), with shallow soil moisture having the highest correlation. The drying of shallow soil moisture caused a significant decrease in evapotranspiration in most of the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River, which, in turn, offset some of the increase in water vapor input, with precipitation showing mainly interannual variability.

The atmospheric boundary layer processes and structural characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are significantly influenced by thermal and dynamic effects in the region. The existing observational data are insufficient to comprehensively reveal the complex formation, development, and evolutionary mechanisms of the TP boundary layer of the TP. Therefore, the use of numerical simulations to investigate these processes and explain their underlying mechanisms has become an effective approach. First, this study reviews the numerical models commonly used for atmospheric boundary layer simulations and the widely adopted parameterization schemes within these models. Second, we present recent research and findings in the field of numerical simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer of the TP, including studies on the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of the boundary layer height, simulations of the boundary layer structure and its influencing mechanisms in typical regions (such as areas with significant topography and lakes), comparative assessments of different boundary layer parameterization schemes in the region, and the impact of model resolution on the simulation outcomes. Finally, the paper concludes by addressing the persistent challenges in simulating PBL processes over the TP, particularly the biases in modeling PBL height and near-surface meteorological variables. It outlines potential strategies for advancing simulation accuracy, including improvements in boundary layer parameterization schemes, careful selection of model resolution, optimization of driving and verification data, and refinement of other physical parameterizations. These insights are intended to provide new directions for future research, with the aim of enhancing the simulation of PBL structure and processes over the TP.