李青, 雷连发, 王振会, 魏鸣, 李东帅. 雷电流热效应的遥感观测研究进展. 地球科学进展, 2017, 32(5): 481-487 Li Qing, Lei Lianfa, Wang Zhenhui, Wei Ming, Li Dongshuai. The Status of Lightning Thermal Effect Observation by Remote Sensing. Advances in Earth Science, 2017, 32(5): 481-487
The Status of Lightning Thermal Effect Observation by Remote Sensing
Li Qing1,2, Lei Lianfa3, Wang Zhenhui1,2,*, Wei Ming1,2, Li Dongshuai1
1.Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, CMA Key Laboratory for Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation,Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology,Nanjing 210044,China
2.School of Atmospheric Physics, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology 210044, China
3.Xi’an Institute for Electronic Engineering, Xi’an 710100, China
*Corresponding author:Wang Zhenhui (1955-), male, Heze City, Shandong Province, Professor. Research areas include atmospheric remote sensing and detection.E-mail:eiap@nuist.edu.cn
Fund:Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China “Theoretical and observational study on microwave remote sensing of the lightning heating effect”(No.41675028); The Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions(PAPD)
Abstract
The intensity of lightning thermal effect and its influence scope and duration (temperature, time and space scales), are not only the important characteristic parameters for lightning itself, but also the important factors in lightning disaster, lightning protection, lightning chemistry and other fields of applications. Due to the random feature of lightning occurrence time and place, coupled with a strong return stroke current, it is hard to make direct measurement of the temperature in lightning channel. Therefore, remote sensing technology is the only method at present to be adopted. This article summarized the present status of the methods and techniques based on visible and near-infrared spectra analysis applied for lightning channel thermal effect observations both at home and abroad, and provided a description of using a ground-based, multichannel microwave radiometer for this purpose.
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The recent lightning research progresses are summarized in the following areas as the lightning locating technology, spatial temporal characteristics of lightning activity in Beijing area, relationships between lightning activity and strong convective weather, lightning forecasting and warning method, lightning physical processes, numerical simulation of thundercloud electrification and lightning discharges. Through the researches in these aspects, the lightning dischargecharacteristics are acquired systemically, especially in the spatial temporal characteristics in Beijing area. Furthermore, important advances in lightning forecasting and warning method and lightning physics process are also obtained. However, the observation experiment and theoretical research of lightning discharge processes still need to be improved because of the randomicity and transience of lightning occurrence. In order to comprehend the lightning physics thoroughly, long term basic researches on the dynamics, the microphysics and the electrification activity in the thunderstorm and their relationship are also needed. The theoretical foundation for lightning forecasting and warning will be provided by these researches, and the application of lightning locating information will be improved for the detection and warning of strong convective weather. On the basis of the further study of lightning initiation and propagation, the research of lightning damage mechanism will be carried out, e.g., the attachment process of CG lightning, the damage to electronic instruments caused by different electromagnetic radiation frequency range etc, by which the technical support for lightning protection can be provided.
Laboratory of Lightning Physics and Protection,Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences,Beijing 100081,China
In order to obtain a better reveal of the spatial and temporal distribution and formation mechanism of lightning disasters in China, this paper establishes a national lightning disaster database and gives statistic analysis of lightning disaster data from 1997 to 2006, in combination with the analysis of satellite-based Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor lightning detecting data from 1995 to 2005 over China. Characteristics of lightning disasters and correlative factors are studied, including lightning exposure, hazard formative environment, hazard, hazard affected bodies and their interactions. The results are as follows. (1) The frequency of lightning disasters and lightning-related casualties correlate with hazard (lightning activities) and hazard affected bodies (population and economic development) in different areas of China. Taking area into consideration, lightning casualties correlate with lightning density, population density and the average GDP, but in negative correlation with rural population proportion and area. Various types of lightning exposure are closely related to various types of hazard affected bodies (proportion of urban population to rural population and economic development). Casualties from lightning disasters rate higher where rural population proportion is higher, while cities mainly suffer property loss from lightning disasters. (2) The annual and diurnal variations in the lightning casualties and the lightning damage correlate significantly with that of the lightning rate. Compared with lightning damages, lightning casualties are affected by people's life routines and habits. (3) Different hazard formative environment causes different ways of lightning casualties and damages. The most proportion lightning fatalities occur on farmland, while the most proportion lightning injuries occur in buildings. (4) 80% of lightning casualties incidents only involve one or two victim, while 61% of the cases involve one victim and 19% involve two victims. Lightning disasters with one death account for 83% of all lightning disasters involving death, while lightning disasters with two death accounts for 12%. (5) Major lightning casualties are directly related to vulnerability of hazard affected bodies. 54% of major lightning casualties happen in rural buildings and constructions, in most of which lightning protection appliances are not installed. 21% happen in sites with danger of explosion and fire, while 13% and 8% happen in classrooms and tourist sites respectively.
The near-infrared spectra in the range of 760 similar to 970 nm for lightning discharge processes are obtained by using a slit-less infrared spectrograph in Shandong area of China. The spectra analysis shows that the near-infrared spectrum is mainly the radiation from the later stage after the discharge peak current, and the lines of neutral nitrogen and oxygen atoms are the major components of the separation spectrum. Furthermore, the evolution characteristic of the channel temperature and the total intensity of spectra along the channel during near-infrared radiation are discussed for the first time. The results show that the channel temperature decreases to about 16000 K compared with the stage of return stroke current rising to peak; there is little difference for spectral structure and channel temperature of different lightning, which reflects the characteristics of plasma channel in the recombined phase; the channel temperature and the total intensity of spectra along the channel show a slight tendency of monotonic change for cloud-to-ground lightning, reaching the maximum near the ground; the variation is non-monotonic in cloud lightning, and the channel temperature and the total intensity of spectra are suddenly changed in the tortuous positions, branches and crunodes of the channel.
The brightness temperatures between the measurement by the ground-based 12-channel microwave radiometer and that computed by the radiative transfer theory are compared. The data are measured in sunny day in September 2006. The results are as follows. The standard deviation of Tb in 51.250 GHz is 3.8 K, which is the maximum. The values from other channels are all less than the value in the 51.250 GHz. The bias values of Tb in 51.250 GHz and 52.280 GHz are larger than 1.0 K. The bias values in the other channels are less than 1.0 K. The slopes of the Tb fitting line are 0.66 and 0.7 in 52.280 GHz and 53.850 GHz, respectively. The slopes of other channels are larger than 0.8. The temperature profile measured by the ground based 12-channel microwave radiometer are compared with that measured by the Radiosonde from September 2005 to August 2008 in Bejing. The difference is increasing with the height.The measurements are analysed in terms of four seasons. From 0 to 10 km (with the heights from 8 km to 9 km excluded), the difference in Summer is larger than any of those in all other seasons. From 0 to 2.750 km, the difference in Spring is larger than in all other seasons. From 2.750 km to 3 km, the difference in Winter is larger than in all other seasons. From 3 km to 9 km, the difference in Autumn is larger than in all other seasons.There exists clear difference between the temperature profile measurements in sunny day and in cloudy day. The slope in sunny day is larger than that in cloudy day, which may be due to the sample number for the comparison.
Comparative analyses is made to the meteorological elements retrived from microwave radiometer(MWR) using the observation data from GPS radiosonde and GPS/METeorology(GPS/MET) which have the same location as the
The difference and correlation between microwave radiometer and radiosonde are presented in this paper, based on conventional sounding, MP 3000A ground based microwave radiometer and automatic station data. Result shows temperature and relative humidity differences from Suzhou ground based microwave radiometer are 3.2℃ and 29% respectively, while correlation coefficients are above 0.98 and around 0.5 accordingly. Analysis of signature for microwave radiometer observations in different weather conditions illustrates that there is a good correspondence between the vertical variations of relative humidity, liquid water content and the rainfall, severe weather, and fog. In precipitation and strong convection cases, relative humidity below 6 km increases ahead of the weather process (lead time of increase in relative humidity in rainfall case is longer than that in severe convection case), liquid water content below 3.5 km rises rapidly, especially in the height from 2.25 to 3.25 km. However, in fog cases, increase of relative humidity is below 3-3.5 km and liquid water content is below 1.5 km. A index and convective stability index may lost their indicative significance after obvious precipitation appears, but they perform well at the beginning of rainfall (especially remarkable rains) and in the fog case.
The developments of lightning detection techniques and methods are summarized. The applications of lightning data to the lightning warning, protection and their monitoring in severe weather are expounded. The techniques and methods of lightning detection network construction in China are also discussed. The approaches of lightning warning by using the lightning data are suggested. The lightning discharges occur in the strong convection thunderstorms and produce large currents, high voltage and strong electromagnetism radiation. So, the lightning discharges can cause personnel injuries, casualties and the property losses. The development of the lightning detection technique is very important to the lightning research and the development of lightning protection techniques. The lightning detection technique has been developing rapidly with the development of science and technology. Some means are provided for lightning monitoring and warning. It is very significant for the mitigation of lightning disasters. Meanwhile, the thunderstorms are the main sources of the lightning discharge occurrences. The monitoring of the lightning discharge may help indicate the occurrences of the severe weather such as hailstorms and rainstorms in some extent. The relationships among strong thunderstorms' dynamics, microphysical processes and lightning discharge characteristics are studied by using the lightning detection data combined with the radar and weather observations. The characteristics of the severe weather and the lightning discharge may be revealed. The methods and techniques of the severe weather warning such as the hailstorm, rainstorm may be developed by using the monitoring information of the lightning discharges. It will provide the new methods and techniques for the monitoring and forecasting of the severe weather and the foundation of improving the forecast level of the severe weather.
The recent progresses in the study of the physical processes of lightning discharge and electric structure of thunderstorm in the last decade were reviewed. By using the self-developed lightning detecting and locating technology with the high time resolutions, the characteristics and parameters of the lightning discharges in different areas were obtained. The observation experiments on the lightning activity was conducted in Qinghai-Tibet plateau for the first time. The special characteristics of the thunderstorm and lightning activity were revealed and their cause of formation were studied by using the numerical simulation. The theory of atomic structure was introduced into the study of lightning spectrum,and the lightning spectrum in the bandwidth of visible light was recorded and identified. The technology of artificially triggered lightning wan altitude was developed and the measuring technologies of the optical and electric signal under the condition of rigorous electromagnetism were resolved. The results observed show the optical and VHF radiation evidence of bi-directional leader propagation. The experiments of lightning protection were conducted by means of the artificially triggered lightning. In addition, the relationship between lightning and weather and climate were studied preliminarly.
Slit-less spectra for first return stroke of lightning between the cloud and ground have been obtained in Qinghai Plateau.According to the relative intensities of lines and transition parameters,the temperatures for individual lightning strokes and at different heights of the same discharge channel have been calculated by using multiple-line method.The result shows that the temperatures in return stroke channel vary from stroke to stroke.In generally,the moreintensive lightning discharge,the higher is the value of channel temperature.On the other hand,for a certain return stroke channel,temperatures at different positions show signs of falling away with increasing height alone the discharge channel.
A field experiment on artificially rocket triggered lightning and natural lightning observation is conducted in summer of 2006 in Conghua, Guangdong. The luminosity characteristics of lighting discharges are observed simultaneously by using a video camera and a Redlake MotionPro HS 4 high speed camera which consists of a 512×512 pin photodiode array module. A cloud to ground (CG) lightningwith 13 return strokes (RS) is observed by using the high speed camera with a frame rate of 5000 frames per second at 16:52:51 Aug 1, 2006. The distance fromthe highspeed camera to the flash is about 2.1 km. The record of the electric field on the surface of the earth shows that this CG lightning discharge transports thenegative charge in cloud to the ground. All of the 13 strokes propagate along the same main channel and have one ground termination. The duration of this flashis 822.4 ms. The peak luminance of the 2nd, 3rd, and 8th return strokes are brighter than that of the first one, being 25% of all 12 subsequent return strokes. Of the 13 strokes, 6 (46%) present some luminosity persistence after the return stroke frame. The durations of 2 persistence luminosity are in excess of 40 ms(CC (continuing current) following 9th stroke: 157.6 ms; CC following 10th stroke: 221 ms). There are 17 M components occurring during the 6 continuing current occurrences. The luminosity characteristics of 3 leaders are examined.The average speed of the stepped leader is 2.23×106 m/s. It is a β type leader according to the previous results which the stepped leader emerges from the cloud base and develops with a high average speed of the order of 106 m/s. The speed of the attempted leader before the 4th return stroke exhibits the decrease as it develops down toward the ground. The speed of the dart stepped leader before the 13th return stroke appears to increase as it approaches the ground. Cut off time is the time when the lightning channel shows no luminosity between two adjacent return strokes. In other words, it is the sum of the time from the frame that the previous return stroke and the CC followed disappears to the frame that the next return stroke is observed. Total luminosity is the sum of luminance of the frames including the return stroke and the CC followed. It is found that the cut off time before a subsequent return stroke exhibits a consistent trend with the total luminosity of this subsequent return stroke and the CC followed (although there is no fixed proportionality between them), especially there isa proportionality relationship between them after the 9th return stroke. The geometric average of 17 M components' lasting time is 1.28 ms, and that of 11 intervals between the consecutive M components is 1.69 ms.
This paper proposes a self-developed multi-channel ground-based microwave radiometer that uses a brightness temperature and data inversion method. We compared the radiometer data and the radiosonde observations, and then analyzed the radiometer observations in terms of brightness temperature, inversion temperature, and water vapor profile accuracy. Results show that the microwave radiometer has a small observation error of brightness temperature and the neural network inversion profiles of atmospheric temperature, water vapor, and other parameters are accurate and reliable. The proposed radiometer has practical applications.
In order to obtain the simulated brightness temperatures of each channel based on the MP-3000 in Wuhan, the radiosonde data is introduced into the radiative transfer model. The selected cases are used to make a comparison of brightness temperatures between the calculated values by radiative transfer model and the observational ones by radiometer. Based on analyzing the consistency of these two values, the rationality of the observed of each channel can be judged. The analysis results show that the simulated and observed brightness temperatures have a high consistency, and data from deviation corrections or linear correction can be used to check the working state of microwave radiometer in each channel, so as to establish an effective quality control scheme of the ground-based microwave radiometer data.
The paper proposes to judge the working condition of a ground-based microwave radiometer for atmospheric remote sensing by observing the brightness temperature (TB) at 08:00 BST on clear days according to atmospheric temperature seasonal variation features.Radiative transfer theory was briefly introduced and the data of temperature at 08:00 BST observed at Nanjing during the period of November 27,2010 to May 29,2011 were used to make a statistical comparison between the observed TB with a ground-based microwave radiometer and the simulated TB with radiosonde profiles as input to radiative transfer calculation in order to judge the working condition of the radiometer.The radiometer has 12 channels including 5 channels at 22.235,23.035,23.835,26.235 and 30.000 GHz for sensing humidity and liquid water content and 7 channels at 51.25,52.28,53.85,54.94,56.66,57.29 and 58.80 GHz for sensing temperature profiles.The results showed that the former 5 channels worked well in the period while the latter 7 did not.The methodology may be applied to radiometers' working condition monitoring as well as observation data quality control.
A comprehensive quality control procedure including extremum check, time consistency check, radiative transfer calculation check and multichannel brightness temperature cross check is suggested to conduct the quality control on the brightness temperature observations with Level-1 data by ground-based microwave radiometer in Beijing. Moreover, the quality control efficiency is also analyzed. The experiment results verified the feasibility of the comprehensive quality control procedure and can be used in the subsequent application of data choice.